THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


-•-I. 


The  Dragon-fly  (Libellula  depressa).     A.  Perfect  insect,     B.  Perfect  insect  emerging 

from  the  pupa.     c.  D.  Larva?  and  pupae. 

Frontispiece. 


THE  INSECT  WORLD; 


A  POPULAR  ACCOUNT   OF   THE   ORDERS   OF 

INSECTS, 


TOGETHER  WITH  A  DESCRIPTION 


THE    HABITS  AND  ECONOMY  OF  SOME  OF   THE  MOST 
INTERESTING  SPECIES. 


FROM    THE    FRENCH    OF 

LOUIS   FIGUIER, 

AUTHOR  OF   "  THE  WORLD  BEFORE  THE  DELUGE,"  "  THE  VEGETABLE  WORLD, 
44  THE  OCEAN  WOBLD,"  ETC.,  ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  564  WOODCUTS. 
BY  MM.  E.  BLANCHARD,  DELAHAYE,  AFTER  REAUMUR,  ETC. 


NEW  YORK  :   D.  APPLETON  &  CO. 

1868. 


LONDON 

PRIKTED  BY  VIRTUE  AND  CO. 
CITY   ROAD. 


EDITOR'S    PREFACE. 


THE  following  translation  of  M.  Figuier's  "Les  Insectes"  was 
put'  into  my  hands,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the 
technicalities  and  the  names  of  species,  when  made  necessary 
by  the  use  of  French  vernaculars,  intelligible  to  English  readers. 
In  this  not  always  easy  task,  I  have  received  much  kind 
assistance  from  Mr.  Janson  and  Mr.  F.  P.  Pascoe,  to  whom  I 
offer  my  best  thanks.  Beyond  this,  some  generic  synonyms  of 
frequent  use,  placed  between  brackets,  some  foot-notes  en  passant, 
a  few  remarks  on  the  occurrence  of  individual  species  in  this 
country,  and  the  insertion  of  the  short  chapter  on  the  Order 
Strepsiptera,  I  have  interfered  but  little  with  the  sense  of  the 
original. 

Y.  D. 


CLEYGATE,  NEAR  ESHER,  SURREY, 
April,  1868. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 
APTERA 

DIPTERA       ...  •     36 

Neinocera     . 
Brachycera  .  52 

HEMIPTERA 

Heteroptera 
Homoptera  . 

LEFIDOPTERA 

The  Larva,  or  Caterpillar 

The  Chrysalis,  or  Pupa 

The  Perfect  Insect         .  •  169 

.  283 


ORTHOPTERA 

0-1  O 

HYMENOPTERA 

NEUROPTERA 

STREPSIPTERA 

t  q/i 

COLEOPTERA 

INDEX  •  .         .  518 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


INTRODUCTION. 

IT  is  not  intended  here  to  thoroughly  investigate  the  anatomy 
of  insects ;  but,  as  we  are  about  to  speak  of  the  habits  and  economy 
of  certain  created  beings,  it  is  necessary  first  to  explain  the 
principal  parts  of  their  structure,  and  the  stages  which  every 
perfect  insect  or  imago  has  undergone  before  arriving  at  that 
state. 

We  therefore  proceed  to  explain,  as  simply  as  may  be,  the 
anatomy  of  an  insect,  and  the  functions  of  its  organs. 

If  we  take  an  insect,  and  turn  it  over,  and  examine  it  carefully, 
the  first  thing  that  strikes  us  is  that  it  is  divided  into  three  parts  : 
the  head ;  the  thorax,  or  chest ;  and  the  abdomen,  or  stomach. 

The  head  (Fig.  1)  is  a  kind  of  box,  formed  of  a  single  piece, 
having  here  and  there  joints  more  or  less  strongly  marked,  some- 
times scarcely  visible.  It  is  furnished  in  front 
with  an  opening — often  very  small — which 
is  the  mouth ;  and  with  others  for  the  eyes, 
and  for  the  insertion  of  the  antennae,  or  horns. 

The  integuments  of  the  head  are  generally 
harder  than  the  other  parts  of  the  body.     It 
is  necessary  that  this  should  be  so.     Insects 
often  live  and  die  in  the  midst  of  substances        Fig  L_Head  of  an 
which  offer  some  resistance.     It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  that  the  head  be  strong  enough  to  overcome  such  resist- 
ance.   The  head  contains  the  masticatory  organs,  which,  frequently 

B 


2  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

having  to  encounter  hard  substances,  must  be  strongly  supported. 
The  exception  to  this  rule  is  among  insects  which  live  by  suction. 
It  would  be  out  of  place  here  to  mention  the  numerous  modifi- 
cations of  the  head  which  are  presented  in  the  immense  series  of 
the  class  of  insects. 

The  eyes  of  insects  are  of  two  kinds,  called  compound  eyes,  or 
eyes  composed  of  many  lenses,  united  by 
their  margins  and  forming  hexagonal 
facettes ;  and  simple  eyes,  or  ocelli,  called 
also  stemmata. 

The   exterior  of  the  eye  is  called   the 

Fig.  2.-A  Compound  C0rn6a      (*%'     2)>     6ach      faC6tte      ^g     & 

cornea,  cornea ;  but  the  facettes  unite  and  form 

a  common  cornea,  which  is  represented  by  the  entire  figure :  these 
facettes  vary  in  size  even  in  the  same  eye. 

In  order  to  show  the  immense  number  of  these  facettes  possessed 
by  many  insects,  we  give  the  following  list : — 

In  the  genus  Mordella  (a  genus  of  beetles)  the  eye  has  25,008  facettes. 

In  the  Libettula  (dragon-fly) 12,544 

In  the  genus  Papilio  (a  genus  of  butterflies)  .  .  .  17,355 
In  Sphinx  convolvuli ^  (the  convolvulus  ha wkmoth)  .  .  1,300 
In  Bombyx  mori  (the  common  silkworm  moth)  .  .  .  6,236 

In  the  house-fly 4,000 

In  the  ant .     .          50       „ 

In  the  cockchafer 8,820      „ 

The  facettes  appear  to  be  most  numerous  in  insects  of  the  genus 
Scarabceus  (a  genus  of  beetles).  They  are  so  minute,  that  they  can 
scarcely  be  detected  with  a  glass. 

Looked  at  in  front,  a  compound  eye  might  be  considered  an 
agglomeration  of  simple  eyes ;  but  internally  its  structure  is 
altogether  different. 

On  the  under  side  of  each  facette  we  find  a  body  of  a  gelatinous 
appearance,  transparent,  and  usually  conical ;  the  base  of  which 
occupies  the  centre  of  the  facette  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave 
around  it  a  ring  to  receive  the  pigment.  This  body  diminishes 
in  thickness  towards  its  other  extremity,  and  terminates  in  a  point 
where  it  joins  a  nervous  filament,  proceeding  from  the  optic 
nerve.  These  cones,  agreeing  in  number  with  the  facettes,  play 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

the  part  of  the  crystalline,  or  lens,  in  the  eyes  of  animals,  They 
are  straight  and  parallel  with  each  other.  A  pigment  fills  all  the 
spaces  between  the  cones,  and  between  the  nervous  filaments, 
and  covers  the  underside  of  each  cornea,  except  at  the  centre. 
This  pigment  varies  much  in  colour.  There  are  almost  always 
two  layers,  of  which  the  exterior  one  is  the  more  brilliant.  In 
fact,  these  eyes  often  sparkle  with  fire,  like  precious  stones. 

M.  Lacordaire,  in  his  "Introduction  a  rEntomologie,"  from 
which  we  borrow  the  greater  part  of  this  information,  has  summed 
up  as  follows,  the  manner  in  which,  according  to  Miiller,  the 
visual  organs  of  insects  operate  : — 

"Each  facette  with  its  lens  and  nervous  filament,  separated 
from  those  surrounding  them  by  the  pigment  in  which  they  are 
enclosed,  form  an  isolated  apparatus,  impenetrable  to  all  rays  of 
light,  except  those  which  fall  perpendicularly  on  the  centre  of 
the  facette,  which  alone  is  devoid  of  pigment.  All  rays  falling 
obliquely  are  absorbed  by  that  which  surrounds  the  gelatinous 
cone.  It  results  partly  from  this  and  partly  from  the  immobility 
of  the  eye  that  the  field  of  vision  of  each  facette  is  very  limited, 
and  that  there  are  as  many  objects  reflected  on  the  optic  filaments 
as  there  are  corneae.  The  extent,  then,  of  the  field  of  vision  will  be 
determined,  not  by  the  diameter  of  these  last,  but  by  the  diameter 
of  the  entire  eye,  and  will  be  in  proportion  to  its  size  and  con- 
vexity. But  whatever  may  be  the  size  of  the  eyes,  like  their  fields 
of  vision,  they  are  independent  of  each  other ;  there  is  always  a 
space,  greater  or  less,  between  them ;  and  the  insect  cannot  see 
objects  in  front  of  this  space  without  turning  its  head.  What  a 
peculiar  sensation  must  result  from  the  multiplicity  of  images 
on  the  optic  filaments  !  This  is  not  more  easily  explained  than 
that  which  happens  with  animals  which,  having  two  eyes,  see 
only  one  image  ;  and  probably  the  same  is  the  case  with  insects. 
But  these  eyes  usually  look  in  opposite  directions,  and  should  see 
two  images,  as  in  the  chameleon,  whose  eyes  move  independently 
of  each  other.  The  clearness  and  length  of  vision  will  depend, 
continues  M.  Miiller,  on  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  of  which 
the  entire  eye  forms  a  segment,  on  the  number  and  size  of  the 
facettes,  and  the  length  of  the  cones  or  lenses.  The  larger  each 
facette,  taken  separately,  and  the  more  brilliant  the  pigment  placed 

B2 


4  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

between  the  lenses,  the  more  distinct  will  be  the  image  of  objects  at 
a  distance,  and  the  less  distinct  that  of  objects  near.  With  the 
latter  the  luminous  rays  diverge  considerably  ;  while  those  from 
the  former  are  more  parallel.  In  the  first  case,  in  traversing 
the  pigment,  they  impinge  obliquely  on  the  crystalline,  and 
consequently  confuse  the  vision;  in  the  second,  they  fall  more 
perpendicularly  on  each  facette. 

"  Objects  do  not  appear  of  the  same  size  to  each  optic  filament, 
unless  the  eye  is  a  perfect  section  of  a  sphere,  and  its  convexity 
concentric  with  that  of  the  optic  nerve.  Whenever  it  is  other- 
wise, the  image  corresponds  more  or  less  imperfectly  with  the 
size  of  the  object,  and  is  more  or  less  incorrect.  Hence  it 
follows,  that  elliptical  or  conical  eyes,  which  one  generally  finds 
among  insects,  are  less  perfect  than  those  referred  to  above. 

"The  differences  which  exist  in  the  organisation  of  the  eye 
among  insects,  are  explicable  to  a  certain  point,  on  the  theory 
which  we  are  about  to  explain  in  a  few  words.  Those  species 
which  live  in  the  same  substances  on  which  they  feed,  and  those 
which  are  parasitical,  have  small  and  flattened  eyes  ;  those,  on  the 
contrary,  which  have  to  seek  their  food,  and  which  need  to  see 
objects  at  a  distance,  have  large  or  very  convex  eyes.  For  the 
same  reason  the  males,  which  have  to  seek  their  females,  have 
larger  eyes  than  the  latter.  The  position  of  the  eyes  depends 
also  on  their  size  and  shape ;  those  which  are  flat,  and  have 
consequently  a  short  field  of  vision,  are  placed  close  together,  and 
rather  in  front,  than  at  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  often  adjoin- 
ing. Spherical  and  convex  eyes,  on  the  contrary,  are  placed  on 
the  sides,  and  their  axes  are  opposite.  But  the  greater  field  of 
vision  which  they  are  able  to  take  in  makes  up  for  this  position/* 

Almost  all  insects  are  provided  with  a  pair  of  compound  eyes, 
which  are  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  head.  The  size  and  form  of 
these  organs  are  very  variable,  as  we  shall  presently  see.  They 
are  generally  placed  behind  the  antenna). 

We  do  not  find  simple  eyes  (ocelli  or  stemmata)  in  all  the 
orders  of  insects,  although  we  frequently  find  them.  They  are 
generally  round,  and  more  or  less  convex,  black,  and  to  the 
number  of  three  in  the  majority  of  cases.  In  this  case  they  are 
most  frequently  placed  in  a  triangle  behind,  and  at  a  greater  or  less 


INTKODUCTION. 


distance  from  the  antennae.  Under  the  cornea,  which  varies  in 
convexity,  is  found  a  transparent,  rather  hard,  and  nearly  globular 
body,  which  is  the  true  crystalline  resting  on  a  sort  of  lens,  which 
represents  the  vitreous  body.  This  vitreous  body  is  enclosed  in  an 
expansion  of  the  optic  nerve.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  pigment, 
most  frequently  red-brown,  sometimes  black,  or  blood-red.  The 
organisation  of  these  eyes  is  analogous  to  the  eyes  of  fishes,  and 
their  refractive  power  is  very  great. 

"With  these  insects  can  only  see  such  objects  as  are  at  a  short 
distance.  Of  what  use  then  can  stemmata  be  to  insects  also  pro- 
vided with  compound  eyes  ?  It  has  been  remarked  that  insects 
having  this  arrangement  of  eyes  feed  on  the  pollen  of  flowers,  and 
it  has  been  surmised  that  these  stemmata  enable  them  to  distin- 
guish the  parts  of  the  flowers. 

The  antennas,  commonly  called  horns,  are  two  flexible  appen- 
dages of  very  variable  form  which  are  joined  to  different  parts  of 
the  head,  and  are  always  two  in  number.  The  joints  of  which 
they  are  made  up  have  each  the  power  of  motion,  and  enable  the 
insect  to  move  them  in  any  direction. 

The  antennae  consist  of  three  parts,  —  the  basal  joint,  commonly 
distinguished  by  its  form,  length,  and  colour  ;  the  club  formed  by 
a  gradual  or  sudden  thickening  of  the  terminal  joints,  of  which 
the  number,  form,  and  size  present  great  variations  ;  lastly,  the 
stalk  formed  by  all  the  joints  of  the 
antennae,  except  the  basal  one  when 
no  club  exists,  and  in  case  of  the 
existence  of  a  club,  of  all  those  be- 
tween it  and  the  basal  one. 

We  give  as  examples  the  anten- 
nae of  two  beetles,  one  of  the  genus 
Asida,  the  other  of  the  genus  Zygia 
(Figs.  3  and  4). 

Insects  for  the  most  part,  while 
in  repose,  place  their  antennae  on 

their  backs,  Or  along  the  sides  of  the   Fig  3  _Antenna  of  a 

head,  or  even  on  the  thorax.  Others     8*ec'ie8  of  Asida" 

are  provided  with  cavities  in  which  the  antennae  repose  either 

wholly  or  in  part. 


Fig  4.—  Antenna  of 


6  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

During  their  different  movements,  insects  move  their  antennae 
more  or  less,  sometimes  slowly  and  with  regularity,  at  other  times 
in  all  directions.  Some  insects  impart  to  their  antennae  a  perpetual 
vibration.  During  flight  they  are  directed  in  front,  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  body,  or  repose  on  the  back. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  antennas,  resembling,  as  they  do,  feathers, 
saws,  clubs,  &c.  ?  Everything  indicates  that  these  organs  play -a 
very  important  part  in  the  life  of  insects,  but  their  functions  are 
imperfectly  understood.  Experience  has  shown  that  they  only  play 
a  subordinate  part  as  feelers,  and  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
senses  of  taste  or  smell.  There  is  no  other  function  for  them  to 
fulfil  except  that  of  hearing. 

On  this  hypothesis  the  antennae  will  be  the  principal  instru- 
ments for  the  transmission  of  sound  waves.  The  membrane  at 
their  base  represents  a  trace  of  the  tympanum  which  exists  among 
the  higher  animals.  This  membrane  then  will  be  an  auditory 
nerve. 

Situated  intermediately  between  the  inferior  animals,  whose 
functions  more  or  less  resemble  those  of  plants,  and  the  vertebrates, 
whose  functions  are  localised  in  a  very  high  degree,  insects  have 
received,  like  these  latter,  special  organs  for  nutrition.  The  mouth 
is  the  most  exterior  of  these  apparatuses. 

The  mouth  of  insects  is  formed  after  two  general  types,  which 
correspond  to  two  kinds  of  requirements.  It  is  suited  in  the  one 

case  to  break  solid  substances,  in  the 
other  to  imbibe  liquids. 

At  first  sight  there  seems  no  simi- 
larity between  the  mouth  of  a  grind- 
ing insect  and  of  one  living  by 
suction.  But  on  examination  it  is 
found  that  the  parts  of  the  mouth 
in  the  one  animal  are  exactly  ana- 
logous to  the  same  parts  in  the  other, 
rig.  5.— Mouth  of  a  masticating  and  that  they  have  only  undergone 

modifications    suiting   them    to    the 
different  purposes  which  they  have  to  fulfil. 

The  mouth  of  a  breaking  insect  is  composed  of  an  upper  lip,  a 
pair  of  mandibles,  a  pair  of  jaws,  and  a  lower  lip  (Fig.  5). 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  lower  lip  and  the  jaws  carry  on  the  outside  certain  nervous 
filaments  which  have  received  the  name  of  palpi. 

When  speaking  of  sucking  insects,  and  in  general  of  the  various 
orders  of  insects,  we  shall  speak  more  in  detail  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  mouth. 

The  thorax  (Fig.  6),  the  second  primary  division  of  the  body 
of  insects,  plays  almost  as  important  a  part  as  the  head.  It  con- 
sists of  three  segments  or  rings, 
the  prothorax,  the  mesothorax, 
and  the  metathorax,  each  of 
which  bears  a  pair  of  legs,  and 
they  are  in  general  joined  to- 
gether. The  wingS  are  attached  Fig.  6.— Thorax  of  Acrocinus  longimanus 

to  the  two  posterior  segments. 

All  insects  have  six  legs.  There  is  no  exception  whatever  to 
this  rule,  though  some  may  not  be  developed. 

After  the  segments  to  which  they  are  attached  the  legs  are 
called  anterior,  posterior,  and  intermediate.  The  legs  are  com- 
posed of  four  parts :  the  trochanter,  a  short  joint  which  unites  the 
thigh  to  the  body,  the  thigh  or  femur,  the  tibia,  answering  to  the 
shank  in  animals,  and  the  tarsus,  or  foot,  composed  of  a  variable 
number  of  pieces  placed  end  to 
end  and  called  the  phalanges. 

We  take  for  example  the 
front  leg  of  a  Heterocerus 
(Fig.  7),  and  the  posterior  leg 
of  a  Zophosis  (Fig.  8),  genera 
of  beetles. 

We  shall  not  dwell  on  the 
different  parts,  as  they  perform 
functions  which  will  occupy  us 
later,  when  speaking  of  the 
various  species  of  the  great 
class  of  insects. 

The    functions   which    the 
legs  of  insects  have  to  perform  consist  in  walking,  swimming,  or 
jumping. 

In  walking,    says    M.    Lacordaire,    insects    move   their 


Fig.  7.— Hind  leg  of  a 
Heterocerus. 


.  8. — Front  leg 
a  Zophosis. 


8  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

in  different  ways.  Some  move  their  six  legs  successively,  or  only 
two  or  three  at  a  time  without  distinction,  but  never  both  legs  of 
the  same  pair  together,  consequently  one  step  is  not  the  same  as 
another.  The  walk  of  insects  is  sometimes  very  irregular,  espe- 
cially when  the  legs  are  long ;  and  they  often  hop  rather  than 
walk.  Others  have  one  kind  of  step  and  walk  very  regularly. 
They  commence  by  moving  the  posterior  and  anterior  legs  on  the 
same  side  and  the  intermediate  ones  on  the  opposite  side.  The 
first  step  made,  these  legs  are  put  down,  and  the  others  raised  in 
their  turn  to  make  a  second. 

Running  does  not  change  the  order  of  the  movements,  it  only 
makes  them  quicker — very  rapid  in  some  species,  and  surpassing 
in  proportion  that  of  all  other  animals  ;  but  in  others  the  pace  is 
slow.  Some  insects  rather  crawl  than  walk. 

In  swimming,  the  posterior  legs  play  the  principal  part.  The 
other  legs  striking  the  water  upwards  or  downwards,  produce  an 
upward  or  downward  motion.  The  animal  changes  its  course  at 
will  by  using  the  legs  on  one  side  only  in  the  same  way  as  one 
turns  a  rowing  boat  with  one  oar  without  the  aid  of  the  rudder. 
Swimming  differs  essentially  from  walking,  for  the  foot  being 
surrounded  by  a  resisting  medium,  the  legs  on  both  sides  are 
moved  at  the  same  time. 

The  act  of  jumping  is  principally  performed  by  the  hind  legs. 
Insects  which  jump  have  these  legs  very  largely  developed,  as  in 

the  figure  (Fig.  9).  When  about 
to  jump  they  bring  the  tibia  into 
contact  with  the  thigh,  which  is 
often  furnished  with  a  groove  to 
receive  it,  having  on  each  side  a 
row  of  spines.  The  leg  then 
suddenly  straightens  like  a  spring, 
and  the  foot  being  placed  firmly 
on  the  ground,  sends  the  insect 

Fig.  9. — Posterior  leg  of  a  jumping  insect.         •     ,        .-i          •  T 

into  the  air  and  at  the  same  time 

propels  forward.  The  jump  is  greater  in  proportion  as  the  leg  is 
longer. 

To  speak  here  in  a  general  manner  of  the  wings  of  insects 
would  be  too  vague.  We  shall  speak  of  them  at  length  in  their 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

proper  place,  when  speaking    of   the    various  types  of    winged 
insects. 

In  the  perfect  insect  (of  which  we  have  been  speaking  in  the 
preceding  pages)  the  abdomen  does  not  carry  either  the  wings 
or  the  legs.  It  is  formed  of  nine  segments,  which  are  without 
appendages,  with  the  exception  of  the  posterior  ones,  which  often 
carry  small  organs  differing  much  in  form  and  function.  These 
are  saws,  probes,  forceps,  stings,  augers,  &e.  We  will  speak  later 
of  these  different  organs  in  their  proper  places. 

With  vertebrate  animals,  which  have  an  interior  skeleton  suited 
to  furnish  points  of  resistance  for  their  various  movements,  the 
skin  is  a  more  or  less  soft  covering,  uniformly  diffused  over  the 
exterior  of  the  body,  and  intended  only  to  protect  them  against 
external  injury.  In  insects  the  points  of  resistance  are  changed 
from  the  interior  to  the  exterior.  The  skin  changes  in  nature  to 
fit  it  to  this  purpose.  It  becomes  hard,  and  presents  between 
the  segments  only  membraneous  intervals,  which  allow  the  hard 
parts  to  move  in  all  directions. 

We  are  examining  a  perfect  insect  ;  we  have  glanced  at  its 
skeleton  and  the  different  appendages  which  spring  from  it.  The 
principal  organs  which  are  contained  in  the  body  remain  to  be 
examined. 

We  will  first  study  the  digestive  apparatus.     This  apparatus 
consists  of  a  lengthened  tubular  organ,  swollen  at  certain  points, 
forming  more  or  less  numerous  circumvolutions,  and  provided  with 
two  distinct  orifices.     This  alimentary  canal  is  always  situated  in\ 
the  median  line  of  the  body,  the  nervous  ganglia.* 

In  its  most  complicated  form  the  alimentary  canal  is  composed 
of  an  oesophagus,  or  gullet,  of  a  crop,  of  a  gizzard,  of  a  chylific 
ventricle,  a  small  intestine,  a  large  intestine,  divers  appendages, 
salivary,  biliary,  and  urinary  glands.  The  oesophagus  is  a  duct 
often  not  thicker  than  a  hair,  in  many  species  enlarged  into  a 
pouch,  which  is  called  the  crop  because  it  occupies  the  same 
position,  and  performs  analogous  functions  with  that  organ  in 
birds.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  the  food  remains  there  some  time 
before  passing  on  to  the  other  parts  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and 
undergoes  a  certain  amount  of  preparation.  It  is  in  the  gizzard, 
*  Ganglion,  a  collection  of  nerves.— ED. 


10 


THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 


when  one  exists,  that  the  food,  separated  by  the  masticatory 
organs  of  the  mouth,  undergoes  another  and  more  complete 
grinding.  Its  structure  is  suited  to  its  office.  It  is,  in  fact,  very 
muscular,  often  half  cartilaginous,  and  strongly  contractile.  Its 
interior  walls  are  provided  with  a  grinding  apparatus,  which 
varies  according  to  the  species,  and  consists  of  teeth,  plates,  spines, 
and  notches,  which  convert  the  food  into  pulp.  It  only  exists 
among  insects  which  live  on  solid  matters,  hard  vegetables,  small 
animals,  tough  skin,  &c.  This  apparatus  is  absent  in  sucking 

insects  and  those  which  live  on 
soft  substances,  such  as  the  pollen 
of  flowers,  &c. 

The  chylific  ventricle  is  never 
absent;  it  is  the  organ  which 
performs  the  principal  part  in 
the  act  of  digestion. 

Two  kinds  of  appendages  be- 
long to  the  chylific  ventricle, 
but  only  in  certain  families.  The 
first  are  papillae,  in  the  form  of 
the  fingers  of  a  glove,  which 
bristle  over  the  exterior  of  this 
organ,  and  in  which  it  is  believed 
that  the  food  begins  to  be  con- 
verted into  chyle.  The  second 
are  caeca,  and  larger  and  less 
numerous. 

They  have  been  considered  as 
Xj   i  secretory  organs,  answering  to 

\ ^^Sg    Cy  *ne  pancreas  in  vertebrate  ani- 

**  mals. 

Fig.  lO.-Digestive  apparatus  of  Carabu8  auratus.  Fig>   ^  which  represents   fl^ 

digestive  apparatus  of  Carabus  auratus,  a  common  beetle,  presents  to 
the  eyes  of  the  reader  the  different  organs  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

A  is  the  mouth  of  the  insect,  B  the  resophagus,  c  the  crop,  r>  the 
gizzard,  E  the  chylific  ventricle,  F  and  G  the  small  and  large 
intestines,  and  H  the  anus. 

We  will  not  mention  the  other  parts  of  the  alimentary  canal  in 


INTBODUCTIOK 


11 


insects.     "We  will  only  speak  of  some  of  the  appendages  of  this 
apparatus. 

The  salivary  glands  pour  into  the  digestive  tube  a  liquid,  gene- 
rally colourless,  which,  from  the  place  where  it  is  secreted,  and  its 
alkaline  nature,  corresponds  to  the  saliva  in  vertebrate  animals.  It 
is  this  liquid  which  comes  in  the  form  of  drops  from  the  tongue  of 
sucking  insects. 

These  vessels  are  always  two  in  number.  Their  form  is  as 
variable  as  complicated.  The  most  simple  is  that  of  a  closed 
flexible  tube,  generally  rolled  into  a  ball, 
and  opening  on  the  sides  of  the  oeso- 
phagus. 

At  the  posterior  extremity  of  the 
chylific  ventricle  are  inserted  a  vari- 
able number  of  capillary  tubes,  usually 
elongated  and  flexible,  and  terminating 
in  culs-de-sac.  Their  colour,  which  de- 
pends on  the  liquid  which  they  contain, 
is  sometimes  white,  but  more  frequently 
brown,  blackish,  or  green.  They  appear 
to  be  composed  of  a  very  slight  and  deli- 
cate membrane,  as  they  are  very  easily 
torn,  and  nothing  is  more  difficult  than 
to  unroll  and  to  disengage  them  from 
the  fatty  or  other  tissues  by  which  they 
are  enveloped. 

The  function  of  these  vessels  is  un- 
certain. Cuvier  and  Leon  Dufour  sup- 
posed them  to  be  analogous  to  the  liver, 
and  on  that  account  they  have  been  called 
biliary  vessels  ;  but  as  this  opinion  is  not 
generally  held,  it  has  been  agreed  to  call 
them  the  Malpighian  vessels,  after  the 
name  of  their  discoverer. 

According  to  M.  Lacordaire,  their  func- 
tions  vary  with   their  position.      When 
they  enter  the  chylific  ventricle,  they  furnish  only  bile  ;  bile  and 
a  urinary  liquid  when  they  enter  the  posterior  part  of  the  ventricle 


Malpighh 


12 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


and  the  intestine,  and  urine  alone  when  they  are  placed  near  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

Fig.  11  represents  part  of  the  preceding  figure  more  highly 
magnified,  showing  the  manner  in  which  these  tubes  enter  the 
chylific  ventricle. 

In  our  rapid  description  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of  insects,  it 
only  remains  for  us  to  mention  certain  purifying  organs  which 

secrete  those  fluids,  generally 
blackish,  caustic,  or  of  peculiar 
smell,  which  some  insects  emit 
when  they  are  irritated,  and  which 
cause  a  smarting  when  they  get 
into  one's  eyes. 

Less  widely  diffused  than  the 
salivary  organs,  they  are  often  of 
a  very  complicated  structure.  In 
Fig.  12  is  represented  the  secre- 
tory apparatus  of  the  Carabus 
auratus,  which  will  serve  for  an 
example  :  A  represents  the  secre- 
tory sacs  aggregated  together  like 
a  bunch  of  grapes,  B  the  canal,  c 
the  pouch  which  receives  the  secre- 
tion, D  the  excretory  duct. 

Sometimes  the  secretion  is 
liquid,  and  has  a  foatid  or  ammo- 
niacal  odour ;  sometimes,  as  in  the  Bombadier  beetle  (Brackinus 
crepitans),  it  is  gaseous,  and  is  emitted  with  an  explosion  in  the 
form  of  a  whitish  vapour,  having  a  strong  pungent  odour  ana- 
logous to  that  of  azotic  or  nitric  acid,  and  the  same  properties. 
It  reddens  litmus  paper,  and  burns  and  reddens  the  skin,  which 
after  a  time  becomes  brown,  and  continues  so  for  a  considerable 
time. 

About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  Malpighi  at 
Bologna,  and  Swamerdam  at  Utrecht,  each  discovered  in  different 
insects  a  pulsatory  organ  occupying  the  median  line  of  the  back, 
which  appeared  to  them  to  be  a  heart.  Nevertheless,  Cuvier, 
having  declared  some  time  afterwards  that  there  was  no  circula- 


Fig.  12. — Secretory  apparatus  of  Carabus 
auratus. 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

tion,  properly  so-called,  among  insects,  his  opinion  was  universally 
adopted. 

But  in  1827  a  German  naturalist  named  Carus  discovered  that 
there  were  real  currents  of  blood  circulating  throughout  the  body, 
and  returning  to  their  point  of  departure.  The  observations  of 
Carus  were  repeated  and  confirmed  by  many  other  naturalists,  and 
we  are  thus  enabled  to  form  a  sufficiently  exact  idea  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  blood  circulates. 

The  following  summary  of  the  phenomena  of  circulation  among 
insects  is  borrowed  from  "Lemons  sur  la  Physiologic  et  1'Ana- 
tomie  comparee  "  by  M.  Milne  Edwards  : — 

The  tube  which  passes  under  the  skin  of  the  back  of  the  head,  and 
front  part  of  the  body,  above  the  alimentary  canal,  has  been  known 
for  a  long  time  as  the  dorsal  vessel.  It  is  composed  of  two  very 
distinct  portions  :  the  anterior,  which  is  tubular  and  not  contractile, 
and  the  posterior,  which  is  larger,  of  more  complicated  structure, 
and  which  contracts  and  dilates  at  regular  intervals. 

This  latter  part  constitutes,  then,  more  particularly  the  heart  of 
the  insect.  Generally  it  occupies  the  whole  length  of  the  abdomen, 
and  is  fixed  to  the  vault  of  the  tegumentary  skeleton  by  membra- 
neous expansions  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  a  free  space  around 
it,  but  shut  above  and  below  so  as  to  form  a  reservoir  into  which  the 
blood  pours  before  penetrating  to  the  heart.  This  reservoir  is  often 
called  the  auricle,  for  it  seems  to  act  as  an  instrument  of  impulsion, 
and  to  drive  the  blood  into  the  ventricle  or  heart,  properly  so 
called. 

The  heart  is  fusiform,  and  is  divided  by  numerous  strictures  into 
chambers.  These  chambers  have  exits  placed  in  pairs,  and  mem- 
braneous folds  which  divide  the  cavity  in  the  manner  of  a  portcullis. 
The  lips  of  the  orifices,  instead  of  terminating  in  a  clean  edge, 
penetrate  into  the  interior  of  the  heart  in  the  form  of  the  mouth- 
piece of  a  flute.  The  double  membraneous  folds  thus  formed  on 
each  side  of  the  dorsal  vessel  are  in  the  shape  of  a  half  moon, 
and  separate  from  each  other  when  this  organ  dilates ;  but  the 
contrary  movement  taking  place,  the  passage  is  closed. 

By  the  aid  of  this  valvular  apparatus,  the  blood  can  penetrate 
the  heart  from  the  pericardic  chamber,  the  empty  space  surrounding 
the  heart,  but  cannot  flow  back  from  the  heart  into  that  reservoir. 


14  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

The  anterior  or  aortic  portion  of  the  dorsal  vessel  shows  neither 
fan-shaped  lateral  expansions,  nor  orifices,  and  consists  of  a  single 
membraneous  tube.  On  reaching  the  interior  of  the  head  it  opens 
in  the  lacunary  inter-organic  system.  The  whole  of  the  blood  set 
in  motion  by  the  contractions  of  the  cardial  portion  of  the  dorsal 
vessel  runs  into  the  cavity  of  the  head,  and  circulates  after- 
wards in  irregular  channels  formed  by  the  empty  spaces  left 
between  the  different  organs.  It  is  the  unoccupied  portions  of  the 
great  visceral  cavity  which  serve  as  conductors  to  the  blood,  and 
through  them  run  the  main  currents  that  one  sees  in  the  lateral 
and  lower  parts  of  the  body,  whence  these  currents  regain  the 
back  part  of  the  abdomen,  and  enter  the  heart  after  having 
traversed  externally  the  different  organs  they  encountered.  These 
principal  channels  are  in  continuity  with  other  gaps  provided 
between  the  muscles,  or  between  the  bundles  of  fibres  of  which 
these  muscles  are  composed,  or  else  in  the  interior  of  the  intes- 
tines. 

The  principal  currents  send  into  the  network  thus  formed  minor 
branches,  which,  having  ramified  in  their  turn  among  the  princi- 
pal parts  of  the  organism,  re-enter  some  main  current  to  regain 
the  dorsal  vessel. 

In  the  transparent  parts  of  the  body  the  blood  may  be  seen 
circulating  in  this  way  in  a  number  of  inter-organic  channels, 
more  or  less  obvious,  penetrating  the  limbs,  overspreading  the 
wings,  when  these  appendages  are  not  horny,  and,  in  short, 
diffusing  itself  everywhere.  "  If,  by  means  of  coloured  injec- 
tions," says  M.  Milne  Edwards,  "one  studies  the  connections 
which  exist  between  the  cavities  in  which  sanguineous  currents 
have  been  found  to  exist,  and  the  rest  of  the  economy,  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  the  irrigatory  system  thus  formed  penetrates  to 
the  full  depth  of  every  organ,  and  should  cause  the  rapid  renewal 
of  the  nourishing  fluid  in  all  the  parts  where  the  process  of  vitality 
renders  the  passage  of  this  fluid  necessary." 

We  shall  see  presently,  in  speaking  of  respiration,  that  the 
relations  between  the  nourishing  fluid  and  the  atmospheric  air  are 
more  direct  and  regular  than  was  for  a  long  time  supposed. 

In  short,  insects  possess  an  active  circulation,  although  we  find 
neither  arteries  nor  veins :  and  although  the  blood  put  in  motion 


INTEODUOTION.  15 

by  the  contractions  of  the  heart,  and  carried  to  the  head  by  the 
aortic  portion  of  the  dorsal  vessel,  can  only  distribute  itself  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  system  to  return  to  the  heart,  by  the  gaps 
left  between  the  different  organs,  or  the  membranes  and  fibres 
of  which  these  organs  are  composed. 

Fig.  13  (page  17),  which  shows  both  the  circulating  and 
breathing  systems  of  an  insect,  enables  us  to  recognise  the 
different  organs  which  we  have  described,  as  helping  to  keep  up 
both  respiration  and  circulation. 

The  knowledge  of  the  respiration  of  the  insect  is  a  scientific 
acquisition  which  is  quite  modern.  Malpighi  was  the  first  to 
prove,  in  1669,  that  these  animals  are  provided  with  organs 
of  respiration,  and  that  air  is  as  indispensable  to  insects  as  it  is  to 
other  living  beings.  But  the  opinion  of  this  celebrated  naturalist 
has  been  contradicted,  and  his  views  have  been  contested,  even  in 
the  present  day.  Now,  however,  one  can  easily  recognise  the 
apparatus  by  the  aid  of  which  the  respiration  of  the  insect  is 
effected. 

In  all  these  animals  the  respiratory  apparatus  is  essentially 
composed  of  membraneous  ducts  of  great  tenuity,  of  which  the 
ramifications  in  incalculable  numbers  spread  everywhere,  and 
bury  themselves  in  the  different  organs,  much  in  the  same  way  as 
the  fibrous  roots  of  plants  bury  themselves  in  the  soil.  These 
vessels  are  called  tracheae.  Their  communications  with  the  air 
are  externally  established  in  different  ways,  according  to  the  cha- 
racter of  the  medium  in  which  the  insect  lives. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  greater  part  of  all  insects  live  in  the 
air.  This  air  penetrates  into  the  tracheae  by  a  number  of  orifices 
placed  at  the  sides  of  the  body,  which  are  termed  spiracles.  On 
close  examination  these  may  be  seen,  and  are  in  the  shape  of 
button-holes  in  a  number  of  different  species.  Let  us  dwell  for  a 
moment  on  the  breathing  apparatus  of  the  insect,  that  is  to  say, 
the  tracheae. 

This  apparatus  is  sometimes  composed  of  elastic  tubes  only, 
sometimes  of  a  collection  of  tubes  and  membraneous  pouches. 
We  will  first  speak  of  the  former. 

The  coats  of  these  breathing  tubes  are  very  elastic,  and  always 
preserve  a  cylindrical  form,  even  when  not  distended.  This  state  of 


16  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

things  is  maintained  by  the  existence,  throughout  the  whole  length 
of  the  trachea,  of  a  thread  of  half  horny  consistency,  rolled  up  in 
a  spiral,  and  covered  externally  by  a  very  delicate  membraneous 
sheath.  The  external  membrane  is  thin,  smooth,  and  generally 
colourless,  or  of  a  pearly  white.  The  cartilaginous  spiral  is  some- 
times cylindrical,  sometimes  flat,  and  also  resembles  mother-of- 
pearl.  It  only  adheres  slightly  to  the  external  membrane,  but  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  closely  united  to  the  internal  one.  This  spiral 
thread  is  only  continuous  in  the  same  trunk ;  it  breaks  off  when 
it  branches,  and  each  branch  then  possesses  its  own  thread,  in  such 
a  way  that  it  is  not  joined  to  the  thread  of  the  trunk  from  which  it 
issued,  except  by  continuity,  just  as  the  branch  of  a  tree  is  attached 
to  the  stem  which  supports  it.  This  thread  is  prolonged,  without 
interruption,  to  the  extreme  points  of  the  finest  ramifications. 

The  number  of  tracheae  in  the  body  of  an  insect  is  very  great. 
That  patient  anatomist,  Lyonnet,  has  proved  to  us,  in  his  great 
work  on  the  goat-moth  caterpillar,  Cossus  ligniperda,  that  the 
insect  has  much  affinity  as  regards  its  muscles  with  animals  of  a 
superior  class.  Lyonnet,  who  congratulated  himself  on  having 
finished  his  long  labours  without  having  had  to  destroy  more  than 
eight  or  nine  of  the  species  he  wished  to  describe,  had  the  patience 
to  count  the  different  air4ubes  in  that  caterpillar.  He  found  that 
there  were  256  longitudinal  and  1,336  transverse  branches  ;  in 
short,  that  the  body  of  this  creature  is  traversed  in  all  directions 
by  1,572  aeriferous  tubes  which  are  visible  to  the  eye  by  the  aid  of 
a  magnifying  glass,  without  taking  into  account  those  which  may 
be  imperceptible. 

The  complicated  system  of  the  breathing  apparatus  which  we  are 
describing  is  sometimes  composed  of  an  assemblage  of  tubes  and 
membraneous  pouches,  besides  the  elastic  tubes  which  we  have 
already  mentioned.  These  pouches  vary  in  size,  and  are  very 
elastic,  expanding  when  the  air  enters,  and  contracting  when  it 
leaves  them,  as  they  are  altogether  without  the  species  of  frame- 
work formed  by  the  spiral  thread  of  the  tubular  tracheee,  of  which 
they  are  only  enlargements.  These,  which  are  called  vesicular 
tracheae,  more  especially  belong  to  those  species  whose  flight  is 
frequent  and  sustained,  such  as  the  grasshopper,  the  humble-bee, 
the  bee,  the  fly,  the  butterfly,  &c. 


INTRODUCTION. 


17 


It  will  be  necessary  to  look  at  Fig.  13  in  order  to  see  the  organs 
of  respiration  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

The  respiratory  mechanism  of  an  insect  is  easily  understood. 


Fig.  13.— A,  abdominal  portion  of  the  dorsal  vessel.     B,  aortic  or  thoraic  portion.     C,  air-vessels  of  the 
head  ;  D,  of  the  abdomen. 

"  The  abdominal  cavity/'  says  Mr.  Milne  Edwards,  "  in  which  is 
placed  the  greater  part  of  the  respiratory  apparatus,  is  susceptible 

c 


18  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

of  being  contracted  and  dilated  alternately  by  the  play  of  the 
different  segments  of  which  the  skeleton  is  composed,  and  which 
are  placed  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be  drawn  into  each 
other  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  When  the  insect  contracts  its 
body  the  tracheae  are  compressed  and  the  air  driven  out.  But 
when,  on  the  other  hand,  the  visceral  cavity  which  contains  the 
tracheae  assumes  its  normal  size  or  dilates,  these  channels  become 
larger,  and  the  air  with  which  they  are  filled  being  rarefied  by 
this  expansion,  is  no  longer  in  equilibrium  w*ith  the  outer  air  with 
which  it  is  in  communication  through  the  medium  of  the  spiracles. 
The  exterior  air  is  then  impelled  into  the  interior  of  the  respira- 
tory tubes,  and  the  inspiration  is  effected." 

The  respiratory  movements  can  be  accelerated  or  diminished, 
according  to  the  wants  of  the  animal  ;  in  general,  there  are 
from  thirty  to  fifty  to  the  minute.  In  a  state  of  repose  the 
spiracles  are  open,  and  all  the  tracheae  are  free  to  receive  air 
whenever  the  visceral  cavity  is  dilated,  but  those  orifices  may 
be  closed,  and  the  insect  thus  possesses  the  faculty  of  stopping 
all  communication  between  the  respiratory  apparatus  and  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere. 

Some  insects  live  in  the  water;  they  are  therefore  obliged 
to  come  to  the  surface  to  take  the  air  they  are  in  need  of,  or  else  to 
possess  themselves  of  the  small  amount  contained  in  the  water. 
Both  these  methods  of  respiration  exist  under  different  forms  in 
aquatic  insects. 

To  inhale  atmospheric  air,  which  is  necessary  for  respiration, 
above  the  water,  certain  insects  employ  their  elytra*  as  a  sort  of  re- 
servoir ;  others  make  use  of  their  antennae,  the  hairs  of  which  retain 
the  globules  of  air.  In  this  case  it  is  brought  under  the  thorax, 
whence  a  groove  carries  it  to  the  spiracles.  Sometimes  the  same 
result  is  obtained  by  a  more  complicated  arrangement,  consisting  of 
respiratory  tubes  which  can  be  thrust  into  the  air,  which  it  is  their 
function  to  introduce  into  the  organisation. 

Insects  which  breathe  in  the  water  without  rising  to  the  sur- 
face are  provided  with  gills  ;  organs  which,  though  variable  in 
form,  generally  consist  of  foliaceous  or  fringed  expansions,  in  the 
midst  of  which  the  tracheae  ramify  in  considerable  numbers.  These 

*  The  horny  upper  wings  with  which  some  insects  are  provided  are  called  elytra. 
— ED. 


INTRODUCTION. 


19 


vessels  are  filled  with  air,  but  it  does  not  disseminate  itself  in  them 
directly,  and  it  is  only  through  the  walls  of  these  tubes  that  the 
contained  gas  is  exchanged  for  the  air  held  in  suspension  by  the 
surrounding  water.  The  oxygen  contained  in  the  water  passes 
through  certain  very  permeable  membranes  of  the  gill  and  pene- 
trates the  tracheae,  which  discharge,  in  exchange,  carbonic  acid, 
which  is  the  gaseous  product  of  respiration. 

Fig.  14  represents  the  gills  or  breathing  apparatus  in  an  aquatic 
insect.  We  take  as  an  example  the 
Ephemera*  It  may  be  observed  that 
the  gills  or  foliaceous  laminae  are  placed 
at  the  circumference  of  the  body,  and 
at  its  smallest  parts. 

We  have  now  seen  that  the  respi- 
ratory apparatus  is  considerably  de- 
veloped in  insects ;  it  is,  therefore,  easy 
to  foresee  that  those  functions  are  most, 
actively  employed  by  them.  In  fact, 
if  one  compares  the  oxygen  they  im- 
bibe with  the  heavy  organic  matter 
of  which  their  body  is  composed,  the 
amount  is  enormous. 

Before  finishing  this  rapid  examina- 
tion of  the  body  of  an  insect,  we  shall 
have  to  say  a  few  words  on  the 
nervous  system. 

This  system  is  chiefly  composed  of  a 
double  series  of  ganglions,  or  collections 
of  nerves,  which  are  united  together  by 
longitudinal  cords.  The  number  of 
these  ganglions  corresponds  with  that 
of  the  segments.  Sometimes  they  are 
at  equal  distances,  and  extend  in  a  chain 

from  One  end  of  the  body  to  the  Other  ;     Fig.  14.— Branchiae  or  gills  of  an  aquatic 

at  others  they  are  many  of  them  close 
together,  so  as  to  form  a  single  mass. 

The  cephalic  ganglions  are  two  in  number ;  they  have  been 

*  May-fly  family. — ED. 

c2 


larva  (Ephemera). 
A,  foliaceous  laminae  or  gills. 


20  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

described  by  anatomists  under  the  name  of  brain.  "  This  ex- 
pression," says  M.  Lacordaire,  "  would  be  apt  to  mislead  the 
reader,  as  it  would  induce  him  to  suppose  the  existence  of  a  concen- 
tration of  faculties  to  assemble  the  feelings  and  excite  the  move- 
ments, which  is  not  the  case."  *  The  same  naturalist  observes, 
"  All  the  ganglions  of  the  ventral  chain  are  endowed  with  nearly 
the  same  properties,  and  represent  each  other  uniformly." 

The  ganglion  situated  above  the  oesophagus  gives  rise  to 
the  optic  nerves,  which  are  the  most  considerable  of  all  those  of 
the  body,  and  to  the  nerves  of  the  antennae.  The  ganglion 
beneath  the  oesophagus  provides  the  nerves  of  the  mandibles,  of 
the  jaws,  and  of  the  lower  lip.  The  three  pairs  of  ganglions 
which  follow  those  placed  immediately  below  the  oesophagus, 
belong  to  the  three  segments  of  the  thorax,  and  give  rise  to 
the  nerves  of  the  feet  and  wings.  They  are  in  general  more 
voluminous  than  the  following  pairs,  which  occupy  the  abdomen. 

Fig.  15  represents  the  nervous  system  of  the  Carabus  auratus  ; 
A  is  the  cephalic  ganglion ;  B,  the  sub-oesophagian  ganglion ;  c, 
the  prothoracic  ganglion ;  D  and  E  are  the  ganglions  of  the  meso- 
thorax  and  metathorax.  The  remainder,  F  F,  are  the  abdominal 
ganglions. 

Before  finishing  these  preliminary  observations,  it  is  necessary 
to  say  that  the  preceding  remarks  only  apply  absolutely  to 
insects  arrived  at  the  perfect  state.  It  is  important  to  make 
this  remark,  as  insects,  before  arriving  at  that  state,  pass  through 
various  other  stages.  These  stages  are  often  so  different  from 
each  other,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  that  they  are 
only  modifications  of  the  same  animal;  one  would  suppose  that 
they  were  as  many  different  kinds  of  animals,  if  there  was  not 
abundant  proof  of  the  contrary. 

The  successive  stages  through  which  an  insect  passes  are  four 
in  number :  the  egg  ;  the  larva ;  the  pupa,  nymph  or  chrysalis ;  and 
the  perfect  insect  or  imago. 

The  egg  state,  which  is  common  to  them,  as  to  all  other  articu- 
late animals,  it  is  unnecessary  to  explain.  Nearly  all  insects  lay 
eggs,  though  some  few  are  viviparous.  There  often  exists  in  the 
extremity  of  the  abdomen  of  the  female  a  peculiar  organ,  called 
*  Introduction  a  1'Entomologie,  tome  ii.  p.  192.  In  8vo.  Paris.  1838. 


INTKODUCTION.  21 

the  ovipositor,  which  is  destined  to  make  holes  for  the  reception  of 
the  eggs.  By  a  wonderful  instinct  the  mother  always  lays  her  eggs 
in  a  place  where  her  young,  on  being  hatched,  can  find  an  abundance 
of  nutritious  substances.  It  will  not  be  needless  to  observe  that  in 
most  cases  these  aliments  are  quite  different  to  those  which  the 
mother  seeks  for  herself. 

In  the  second  stage,  that  is  to  say,  on  leaving  the  egg — the 


Fig.  15. — Nervous  system  of  Carabus  auratus. 


larva  period — the  insect  presents  itself  in  a  soft  state,  without 
wings,    and   resembles    a  worm.       In   ordinary   language,    it   is 


22  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

nearly  always  called  a  worm,  or  grub,  and  in  certain  cases,  a  cater- 
pillar. 

Linnseus  was  the  first  to  use  the  term  "larva" — taken  from 
the  Latin  word  larva,  "a  mask" — as  he  considered  that,  in  this 
form,  the  insect  was  as  it  were  masked.  At  a  certain  period  it 
ceases  to  eat,  retires  to  some  hidden  spot,  and  after  changing  its 
skin  for  the  last  time,  enters  the  third  stage  of  its  existence,  and 
becomes  a  chrysalis.  In  this  state  it  resembles  a  mummy  en- 
veloped in  bandages,  or  a  child  in  its  swaddling  clothes.  It  is 
generally  incapable  of  either  moving  or  nourishing  itself.  During 
this  period  of  its  life  the  insect  eats  voraciously,  and  often 
changes  its  skin.  It  continues  so  for  days,  weeks,  months,  and 
sometimes  even  for  years. 

While  the  insect  is  thus  apparently  dead,  a  slow  but  certain 
change  is  going  on  in  the  interior  of  its  body.  A.  marvellous  work, 
though  not  visible  outside,  is  being  effected,  for  the  different 
organs  of  the  insect  are  developing  by  degrees  under  the  covering 
which  surrounds  them.  When  their  formation  is  complete,  the 
insect  disengages  itself  from  the  narrow  prison  in  which  it  was  en- 
closed, and  makes  its  appearance,  provided  with  wings,  and  capable 
of  propagating  its  kind  ;  in  short,  of  enjoying  all  the  faculties  which 
nature  has  accorded  to  its  species.  It  has  thrown  off  the  mask ; 
the  larva  and  pupa  have  disappeared,  and  given  place  to  the  per- 
fect insect. 

To  show  the  reader  the  four  states  through  which  the  insect 
passes  in  succession,  in  Fig.  16  is  represented  the  insect  known 
as  the  Hydrophilus*  firstly,  in  the  egg  state ;  secondly,  as  the 
larva,  or  caterpillar ;  thirdly,  in  the  pupa  ;  and  fourthly,  as  the 
perfect  insect,  or  imago.  The  different  degrees  of  transforma- 
tion and  evolution  which  we  have  just  described,  are  those  which 
take  place  either  completely  or  incompletely  in  all  insects.  Their 
metamorphoses  are  then  at  an  end.  There  are  certain  insects, 
however,  that  show  no  difference  in  their  various  stages,  except 
by  absence  of  wings  in  the  larva  ;  and  in  these  the  chrysalis  is 
only  characterised  by  the  growth  of  the  wings,  which,  at  first 
folded  back  and  hidden  under  the  skin,  afterwards  become  free,  but 
are  not  wholly  developed  till  the  last  skin  is  cast.  These  insects 

*  A  kind  of  water-beetle.— ED. 


INTRODUCTION. 


23 


are  said  to  undergo  incomplete  metamorphoses,  the  former  com- 
plete metamorphoses.  Some  never  possess  wings ;  indeed,  there 
are  others  which  undergo  no  metamorphosis,  and  are  born  pos- 
sessed of  'all  the  organs  with  which  it  is  necessary  they  should 
be  provided. 

Some  curious  researches  have  been  lately  made  on  the  strength  of 
insects.     M.  Felix  Plateau,  of  Brussels,  has  published  some  obser- 


Fig.  1 6. — Hydrophilus  in  its  four  states. 
A,  eggs ;  B,  larva ;  C,  pupa;  D,  imago,  or  perfect  insect. 

vations  on  this  point,  which  we  think  of  sufficient  interest  to 
reproduce  here. 

In  order  to  measure  the  muscular  strength  of  man,  or  of 
animals,  as  the  horse,  for  instance,  many  different  dynamometric 
apparatuses  have  been  invented,  composed  of  springs,  or  systems  of 
unequal  levers.  The  Turks'  heads  which  are  seen  at  fairs,  or  in 
the  Champs  Elysees,  at  Paris,  and  on  which  the  person  who 
wishes  to  try  his  strength  gives  a  strong  blow  with  the  fist,  repre- 
sent a  dynamometer  of  this  kind.  The  one  which  Buffon  had 


24  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

constructed  by  Regnier,  the  mechanician,  and  which  is  known 
by  the  name  of  Regnier 's  Dynamometer,  is  much  more  precise. 
It  consists  of  an  oval  spring,  of  which  the  two  ends  approach 
each  other :  when  they  are  pulled  in  opposite  directions,  a  needle 
which  works  on  a  dial  marked  with  figures,  indicates  the  force 
exercised  on  the  spring.  It  has  been  proved,  with  this  instrument, 
that  the  muscular  effort  of  a  man  pulling  with  both  hands  is  about 
124  Ibs.,  and  that  of  a  woman  only  74  Ibs.  The  ordinary  effort 
of  strength  of  a  man  in  lifting  a  weight  is  292  Ibs,  and  a  horse,  in 
pulling,  shows  a  strength  of  675  Ibs.;  a  man,  under  the  same 
circumstances,  exhibiting  a  strength  of  90  Ibs. 

Physiologists  have  not  as  yet  given  their  attention  to  the 
strength  of  invertebrate  animals.  It  is,  relatively  speaking, 
immense.  Many  people  have  observed  how  out  of  proportion 
the  jump  of  a  flea  is  to  its  size.  A  flea  is  not  more  than  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  it  jumps  a  yard;  in  propor- 
tion, a  lion  ought  to  jump  two- thirds  of  a  mile.  Pliny  shows, 
in  his  "Natural  History,"  that  the  weights  carried  by  ants  appear 
exceedingly  great  when  they  are  compared  with  the  size  of  these 
indefatigable  labourers.  The  strength  of  these  insects  is  still  more 
striking,  when  one  considers  the  edifices  they  are  able  to  construct, 
and  the  devastations  they  occasion.  The  Termes,  or  White  Ant,* 
constructs  habitations  many  yards  in  height,  which  are  so  firmly 
and  solidly  built,  that  the  buffaloes  are  able  to  mount  them,  and 
use  them  as  observatories ;  they  are  made  of  particles  of  wood  joined 
together  by  a  gummy  substance,  and  are  able  to  resist  even  the 
force  of  a  hurricane. 

There  is  another  circumstance  which  is  worth  being  noted. 
Man  is  proud  of  his  works ;  but  what  are  they,  after  all,  in  com- 
parison with  those  of  the  ant,  taking  the  relative  heights  into 
consideration  ?  The  largest  pyramid  in  Egypt  is  only  146  yards 
high,  that  is,  about  ninety  times  the  average  height  of  man ; 
whereas  the  nests  of  the  Termites  are  a  thousand  times  the  height 
of  the  insects  which  construct  them.  Their  habitations  are  thus 
twelve  times  higher  than  the  largest  specimen  of  architecture 
raised  by  human  hands.  We  are,  therefore,  far  beneath  these 
little  insects,  as  far  as  strength  and  the  spirit  of  working  go. 
*  A  Neuropterous  insect,  not  a  true  Ant. — ED. 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

The  destructive  powers  of  these  creatures,  so  insignificant  in 
appearance,  are  still  more  surprising.  During  the  spring  of  a 
single  year  they  can  effect  the  ruin  of  a  house  by  destroying  the 
beams  and  planks.  The  town  of  La  Rochelle,  to  which  the 
Termites  were  imported  by  an  American  ship,  is  menaced  with 
being  eventually  suspended  on  catacombs,  like  the  town  of 
Valencia  in  New  Grenada.  It  is  well  known  what  destruction  is 
caused  when  a  swarm  of  Locusts  alight  in  a  cultivated  field, 
and  it  is  certain  that  even  their  larvse  do  as  much  injury  as 
the  perfect  insect.  All  this  sufficiently  proves  the  destructive 
capabilities  of  these  little  animals,  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
despise. 

M.  Plateau  has  studied  the  power  of  traction  in  some  insects, 
the  power  of  pushing  in  the  digging  insects,  and  the  lifting 
power  of  others  during  flight.  He  has  thus  been  able  to  make 
some  most  interesting  comparisons,  of  some  of  which  we  will  relate 
the  results. 

The  average  weight  of  man  being  142  Ibs.,  and  his  power  of 
traction,  according  to  Regnier,  being  124 Ibs.,  the  proportion  of  the 
weight  he  can  draw  to  the  weight  of  his  body  is  only  as  87  to  100. 
With  the  horse  the  proportion  is  not  more  than  67  to  100  ;  a  horse 
1,350  Ibs.  in  weight  only  drawing  about  900  Ibs.  The  horse, 
therefore,  can  draw  little  more  than  half  his  own  weight,  and  a  man 
cannot  draw  the  weight  of  his  own  body. 

This  is  a  very  poor  result,  if  compared  with  the  strength  of  the 
cockchafer.  This  insect,  in  fact,  possesses  a  power  of  traction 
equal  to  more  than  fourteen  times  its  own  weight.  If  you 
amuse  yourself  with  the  children's  game  of  making  a  cockchafer 
draw  small  cargoes  of  stones,  you  will  be  surprised  at  the  great 
weight  which  this  insignificant  looking  animal  is  able  to  accomplish. 

To  test  the  power  of  traction  in  insects,  M.  Plateau  attached 
them  to  a  weight  by  means  of  a  thread  fastened  to  one  of  their  feet. 
The  Coleoptera  *  are  the  best  adapted  for  these  experiments. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  Belgian 
physician  : — Carabus  auratus  can  draw  seven  times  the  weight  of 
its  body  ;  Nebria  brevicollis,  twenty-five  times  ;  Necropkorus  ves- 
pillo,  fifteen  times ;  Trichius  fasciatus,  forty-one  times ;  and 

*  For  explanation  of  the  words  Coleoptera,  &c.,  see  p.  28. — ED. 


26  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

Oryctes  nasicornis,  four  times  only.  The  bee  can  draw  twenty 
times  the  weight  of  its  body ;  Donacia  nymphea*  forty-two  times 
its  own  weight. 

From  this  it  follows  that  if  the  horse  possessed  the  same 
strength  as  this  last  insect,  or  if  the  insect  were  the  size  of  a  horse, 
they  would  either  of  them  be  able  to  draw  155,250  Ibs.  M. 
Plateau  has  ascertained  the  pushing  power  in  insects,  by  introducing 
them  into  a  pasteboard  tube,  the  interior  of  which  was  made  rough, 
and  in  which  was  fixed  a  glass  plate,  which  allowed  the  light 
to  penetrate  into  the  prison.  The  animal,  if  excited,  struggled 
with  all  its  strength  against  the  transparent  plate,  which,  on  being 
pushed  forward,  turned  a  lever  adapted  to  a  miniature  dynamo- 
meter, which  indicated  the  amount  of  eflPort  exercised. 

The  results  thus  obtained  prove  that  the  pushing  power,  like 
the  power  of  traction,  is  greater  in  inverse  proportion  to  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  animal.  A  few  figures  will  better  explain 
this  curious  law.  In  Oryctes  nasicornis,  the  proportion  of  the 
pushing  power  to  the  weight  of  the  insect  is  only  three  to  two  ; 
in  Geotrupes  stercorarius,  it  is  sixteen  to  two ;  and  in  Onthophagus 
nuchicornis,  seventy-nine  to  six. 

Experiments  have  been  made  on  the  lifting  power  of  insects, 
by  fastening  a  ball  of  soft  wax  to  a  thread  attached  to  the  hind 
legs.  The  proportion  of  the  weight  lifted  has  been  found  equal 
to  that  of  the  body.  That  is  to  say,  that  the  insect  when  flying 
can  lift  its  own  weight.  This  is  proved  by  the  following  calcula- 
tions : — In  the  Neuroptera  the  proportion  is  1,  in  the  Dragon-fly 
(Libellula  vulgata),  '7  in  Lestes  sponsa.  In  the  order  Hymen- 
optera,  it  is  78  in  the  bee,  and  -63  in  Bombus  terrestris,  the 
humble  bee.  In  the  Diptera  it  is  -9  in  Calliphora  vomitoria,^  1-84 
in  the  Syrphus  corolla,  and  T77  in  the  house-fly. 

These  results  show  that  insects  have  only  sufficient  power  to 
sustain  their  own  weight  when  flying,  as  the  above  calculations 
exhibit  the  maximum  of  which  they  are  capable,  and  at  the  utmost 
this  strength  would  only  compensate  for  the  fatigue  occasioned 
by  the  action  of  flight. 

At  the  same  time  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  Diptera,  and 
among  others  the  house-fly,  can  sustain  their  flight  longer  than  the 
*  A  beetle.— ED.  f  The  meat-fly.— ED. 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

Hymenoptera  and  Neuroptera,  although  one  would  not  think  so 
from  their  appearance.  In  conclusion,  if  an  insect's  power  of  fly- 
ing is  not  considerable,  its  power  of  traction  and  propulsion  are 
immense,  compared  with  the  vertebrate  animals,  and  in  the  same 
group  of  insects,  those  that  are  the  smallest  and  lightest  are 
the  strongest.  The  proportion  between  the  muscular  strength  of 
insects  and  the  dimensions  of  their  bodies,  would  not  appear 
to  be  on  account  of  their  muscles  being  more  numerous 
than  those  of  vertebrate  animals,  but  on  account  of  greater  intrinsic 
energy  and  muscular  activity.  The  articulations  of  insects  may 
be  considered  as  solid  cases  which  envelop  the  muscles,  and 
the  thickness  of  these  cases  appears  to  decrease  in  a  singular 
manner  according  to  the  size  of  the  creature.  The  relative 
bulk  of  the  muscles  being  less  in  the  smaller  species  than  in  the 
larger,  it  is  necessary  to  explain  the  superior  relative  strength  of 
the  former  by  supposing  them  to  possess  a  greater  amount  of  vital 
energy. 

These  astonishing  phenomena  will  perhaps  be  better  under- 
stood if  we  consider  the  obstacles  which  insects  have  to  overcome 
to  satisfy  their  wants,  to  seek  their  food,  to  defend  themselves 
against  their  enemies,  &c. 

To  meet  these  requirements  they  are  marvellously  constructed 
for  both  labour  and  warfare,  and  their  strength  is  superior  to  that 
displayed  by  all  other  animals.  It  is  also  much  greater  than  that  of 
the  machines  we  construct  to  replace  manual  labour.  They  repre- 
sent strength  itself.  God's  workmen  are  infinitely  more  powerful 
than  those  invented  by  the  genius  of  man,  which  we  call  machines. 

We  think  it  necessary,  in  closing  this  chapter,  to  give  a  sort  of 
general  outline  of  the  great  class  of  animals  which  we  are  about  to 
study.  If  we  wished  to  characterise  insects  by  their  exterior 
aspect,  we  might  consider  them  as  articulate  animals,  whose 
bodies,  covered  with  tough  and  membraneous  integuments,  are 
divided  into  three  distinct  parts  :  the  head,  provided  with  two 
antennae,  and  eyes  and  mouth  of  very  variable  form ;  a  trunk  or 
thorax,  composed  of  three  segments,  which  has  underneath  it 
always  six  articulated  limbs,  and  often  above  it  two  or  four  wings ; 
and  an  abdomen,  composed  of  nine  segments,  although  some 
may  not  appear  to  exist  at  first  sight. 


28  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

If,  in  addition  to  these  characteristics,  one  considers  that  these 
animals  are  not  provided  with  interior  skeletons — that  their 
nervous  system  is  formed  of  a  double  cord,  swelling  at  intervals, 
and  placed  along  the  underside  of  the  body,  with  the  exception  of 
the  first  swellings  or  ganglions  which  are  under  the  head — that  they 
are  not  provided  with  a  complete  circulating  system — that  they 
breathe  by  particular  organs  termed  tracheae,  extending  parallel 
to  each  other  along  each  side  of  the  body,  and  communicating 
with  the  exterior  air  by  lateral  openings  termed  spiracles — that 
their  sexes  are  distinct — that  they  are  reproduced  from  eggs — and, 
in  conclusion,  that  the  different  parts  we  have  mentioned  are  not 
complete  until  the  creature  has  passed  through  many  successive 
changes,  called  metamorphoses,  a  general  idea  may  be  formed  of 
what  is  meant  in  zoology  by  the  word  "  insect." 

Insects,  whose  general  organisation  we  have  briefly  traced,  have 
been  classed  by  naturalists  as  follows  : — 

1.  APTEKA  (Fleas  and  Lice). 

2.  DIPTERA  (Gnats,  Flies,  etc.). 

3.  HEMIPTERA  (Bugs,  etc.). 

4.  LEPIDOPTERA  (Butterflies  and  Moths). 

5.  ORTHOPTERA  (Grasshoppers,  Crickets,  etc.). 

6.  HYMENOPTERA  (Bees,  Wasps,  etc.). 

7.  NEUROPTERA  (Libellula,  or  Dragon-fly ;  Ephemera,  or  May-fly ; 

Phryganea,  or  Alder- fly). 

8.  *STREPSIPTERA,  an  anomalous  order,  the  species  composing  which  are 

parasitical  on  various  Hymenoptera. 

9.  COLEOPTERA  (Cockchafers  and  Beetles). 

We  shall  commence  the  history  of  the  various  orders,  by 
examining  the  Aptera. 

*  By  some  unaccountable  oversight,  this  Order  is  omitted  in  the  French  Edition 
Paris,  1867.— ED. 


I. 

APTERA. 

INSECTS  of  this  order  are  without  wings,  and  the  name  is 
derived  from  two  Greek  words,  a,  privative,  and  Trrcpdv,  wing, 
indicating  the  negative  character  which  constitutes  this  order.* 
It  consists  of  Fleas  and  Lice.  The  Flea  (Pulex),  of  which 
De  Geer  formed  a  separate  group,  and  called  Suctoria,  includes 
several  species. 

The  common  flea  (Pulex  irritans,  Fig.  17)  has  a  body  of  oval 
form,  somewhat  flattened,  covered  with  a 
rather  hard  horny  skin  of  a  brilliant  chestnut 
brown  colour.  It  is  the  breaking  of  this  hard 
skin  which  produces  the  little  crack  which 
is  heard  when,  after  a  successful  hunt,  one  has 
the  happiness  to  crush  one  of  these  parasites 
between  one's  nails. 

Its  head,  small  in  proportion  to  the  body,  is  compressed,  and 
carries  two  small  antennae,  of  cylindrical  form,  composed  of 
four  joints,  which  the  animal  shakes  continually  when  in  motion, 
but  which  it  lowers  and  rests  in  front  of  its  head  when  in  a 
state  of  repose.  The  eyes  are  simple,  large,  and  round.  The 
beak  is  composed  of  an  exterior  jointed  sheath,  having  inside 
it  a  tube,  and  carrying  underneath  two  long  sharp  lancets,  with 
cutting  and  saw-like  edges.  It  is  with  this  instrument  that  the 

*  It  is  probable  that  one  day  the  order  Aptera  will  be  superseded.  The 
absence  of  wings  is  not  really  a  character  of  great  value.  De  Blainville,  Mollard, 
Pouchet,  Van  Beneden,  and  Gervais,  have  made  several  attempts  in  that  direction. 
The  fleas  have  been  placed  among  the  Diptera,  and  the  lice  among  Hemiptera  in 
the  "  Traite  de  Zoologie  Medicale"  of  these  two  last  authors. 


30  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

flea  pierces  the  skin,  irritates  it,  and  causes  the  blood  on  which 
it  lives  to  flow. 

This  bite,  as  every  one  knows,  is  easily  recognised  by  the  pre- 
sence of  small  darkish  red  spots,  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  a  paler 
colour.  The  quantity  of  blood  absorbed  by  this  little  creature  is 
enormous  when  compared  with  its  size. 

The  body  of  the  flea  is  divided  into  thirteen  segments,  of  which 
one  forms  the  head ;  three  the  thorax,  which  is  short ;  and  the 
remainder  the  abdomen. 

The  limbs  are  long,  strong,  and  spiny.  The  tarsus,  or  foot,  has  five 
joints,  and  terminates  in  hooks  turned  in  opposite  directions.  The 
two  anterior  limbs  are  separated  from  the  others,  and  are  inserted 
nearly  under  the  head ;  the  posterior  ones  are  particularly  large 
and  strong. 

The  jumps  which  fleas  are  able  to  make  are  really  gigantic,  and 
the  strength  of  these  little  animals  quite  herculean  when  compared 
with  the  size  of  their  bodies.  The  reader  may  be  inclined  to  smile 
at  the  assertion  that  the  flea  possesses  herculean  strength ;  but 
let  him  wait  a  little,  and  he  will  find  that  it  is  no  exaggeration. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  strength,  the  docility,  and  the  good- 
will of  the  fleas,  some  wonderful  little  things  have  been  made, 
which  have  served  at  the  same  time  to  show  the  astonishing  skill 
of  certain  workmen. 

In  his  "  Histoire  abrigee  des  Insectes,"  published  in  the  seventh 
year  of  the  French  Republic,  Geoffroy  relates  that  a  certain  Mark, 
an  Englishman,  had  succeeded,  by  dint  of  patience  and  art,  in 
making  a  gold  chain  the  length  of  a  finger,  with  a  padlock 
and  a  key  to  fasten  it,  not  exceeding  a  single  grain  in  weight.  A 
flea  attached  to  the  chain  pulled  it  easily.  The  same  learned 
writer  relates  a  still  more  surprising  fact.  An  English  work- 
man constructed  a  carriage  and  six  horses  of  ivory.  The 
coachman  was  on  the  box  with  a  dog  between  his  legs,  there  were 
also  a  postillion,  four  persons  in  the  carriage,  and  two  servants 
behind,  and  the  whole  of  this  was  drawn  by  one  flea. 

In  his  "  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Insectes  Apteres,"  Baron  "Walck- 
enaer  relates  the  following  marvellous  instance  of  industry, 
patience,  and  dexterity : — 

"  I  think  it  is  about  fifteen  years  ago,  that  the  whole  population  of 


APTEKA.  31 

Paris  could  see  the  following  wonders  exhibited  on  the  Place  de 
la  Bourse,  for  sixty  centimes.  They  were  the  learned  fleas.  I 
have  seen  and  examined  them  with  entomological  eyes,  assisted 
by  a  glass. 

"Thirty  fleas  went  through  military  exercises,  and  stood  upon 
their  hind  legs,  armed  with  pikes,  formed  of  very  small  splinters 
of  wood. 

"  Two  fleas  were  harnessed  to  and  drew  a  golden  carriage  with 
four  wheels  and  a  postillion.  A  third  flea  was  seated  on  the  coach- 
box, and  held  a  splinter  of  wood  for  a  whip.  Two  other  fleas  drew 
a  cannon  on  its  carriage.  This  little  trinket  was  admirably 
finished ;  not  a  screw  or  a  nut  was  wanting.  These  and  other 
wonders  were  performed  on  polished  glass.  The  flea-horses  were 
fastened  by  a  gold  chain  attached  to  the  thighs  of  their  hind 
legs,  which  I  was  told  was  never  taken  off.  They  had  lived 
thus  for  two  years  and  a  half,  not  one  having  died  during 
the  period.  To  be  fed,  they  were  placed  on  a  man's  arm, 
which  they  sucked.  When  they  were  unwilling  to  draw  the 
cannon  or  the  carriage,  the  man  took  a  burning  coal,  and  on  it 
being  moved  about  near  them,  they  were  at  once  roused,  and 
recommenced  the  performances." 

The  learned  fleas  were  the  admiration  and  amazement  of  Paris, 
Lyons,  and  the  chief  provincial  towns  of  France,  in  1825. 

But  how,  one  will  ask,  was  it  possible  in  a  large  public  room  to 
see  this  wonderful  sight  ?  And  it  is  necessary  that  this  should  be 
explained.  The  spectators  were  seated  in  front  of  a  curtain,  pro- 
vided with  magnifying  glasses,  through  which  they  looked  as  they 
would  at  a  diorama,  at  landscapes  or  buildings. 

But  let  us  return  to  the  natural  history  of  our  insect.  The 
female  flea  lays  from  eight  to  twelve  eggs,  which  are  of  oval  shape, 
smooth,  viscous,  and  white. 

Contrary  to  what  one  might  think,  d  priori,  the  flea  does  not 
fix  its  eggs  to  the  skin  of  its  victims.  She  lets  them  drop  on  the 
ground,  between  the  boards  of  floors,  or  old  furniture,  and  among 
dirty  linen  and  rubbish. 

M.  Defrance  has  remarked  that  there  are  always  found  mixed 
with  the  eggs  a  certain  number  of  grains  of  a  brilliant  black 
colour,  which  are  simply  dried  blood.  This  is  a  provision  which 


32  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

the  foreseeing  mother  has  prepared  at  our  expense  to  nourish  her 
young  offspring. 

In  four  or  five  days  in  summer,  and  in  eleven  days  in  winter, 
one  may  see  coming  out  of  these  eggs  small,  elongated  larvae,  of 
cylindrical  form,  covered  with  hair,  and  divided  into  three 
parts,  the  last  provided  with  two  small  hooks.  The  head 
is  scaly  above,  has  two  small  antennas,  and  is  without  eyes. 
These  larvae  are  without  limbs,  but  they  can  twist  about,  roll 
themselves  over  and  over,  and  even  advance  pretty  fast  by  raising 
their  heads.  Though  at  first  white,  they  become  afterwards  of 
a  reddish  colour. 

About  a  fortnight  after  they  are  hatched  they  cease  to  eat, 
and  are  immovable,  as  if  about  to  die.  They  then  commence  to 
make  a  small,  whitish,  silky  cocoon,  in  which  they  are  trans- 
formed into  pupae.  In  another  fortnight  these  pupae  become  perfect 
insects. 

A  most  remarkable  trait,  and  unique  amongst  insects,  has  been 
observed  in  the  flea.  The  mother  disgorges  into  the  mouths  of 
the  larvae  the  blood  with  which  she  is  filled. 

The  flea  is  most  abundant  in  Europe  and  the  north  of  Africa. 
Certain  circumstances  particularly  favour  its  multiplication  ;  being 
most  abundant  in  dirty  houses,  in  barracks,  and  in  camps,  in 
deserted  buildings,  in  ruins,  and  in  places  frequented  by  people  of 
uncleanly  habits. 

Other  kinds  of  fleas  live  on  animals,  as,  for  example,  the  cat 
flea,  the  dog  flea,  and  those  of  the  pigeon  and  poultry. 

We  shall  say  a  few  words  about  a  peculiar  species  which  abounds 
in  all  the  hot  parts  of  America,  but  principally  in  the  Brazils  and 
the  neighbouring  countries.  This  formidable  species  is  the  Chigo 
(Pulex  penetrans) . 

The  chigo,  called  also  the  tick,  is  smaller  than  the  common 
flea.  It  is  flat,  brown,  with  a  white  spot  on  the  back,  and  is  armed 
with  a  strong,  pointed,  stiff  beak,  provided  with  three  lancets. 
It  is  with  this  instrument  that  the  female  attacks  man  with  the 
intention  of  lodging  in  his  skin  and  bringing  forth  her  young  there. 

The  chigo  attacks  chiefly  the  feet.  It  slips  in  between  the 
flesh  and  the  nails,  or  gets  under  the  skin  of  the  heel.  Notwith- 
standing the  length  of  the  animal's  beak,  introducing  itself 


APTEBA.  33 

beneath  the  skin  does  not  at  first  cause  any  pain.  But  after  a 
few  days  one  is  made  aware  of  its  presence  by  an  itching,  which, 
though  at  first  slight,  gradually  increases,  and  ends  by  becoming 
unbearable. 

The  chigo,  when  under  the  skin,  betrays  itself  by  a  bump 
outside.  Its  body  has  now  become  as  large  as  a  pea,  in  the 
attacked  skin  a  large  brown  bag  containing  matter  is  formed.  In 
this  bag  are  collected  the  eggs,  which  issue  from  an  orifice  in 
the  posterior  extremity,  and  are  not  hatched  in  the  wound  itself,  as 
was  long  thought  to  be  the  case. 

The  chigoes  are  an  object  of  terror  to  the  Brazilian  negroes. 
These  formidable  parasites  sometimes  attack  the  whole  of  the 
foot,  which  they  devour,  and  thus  bring  on  mortification ;  many 
negroes  losing  the  bones  of  some  of  their  toes  by  the  ravages 
of  these  dangerous  creatures.  To  guard  against  their  attacks, 
they  wear  thick  shoes,  and  examine  their  feet  carefully  every 
day.  The  plan  usually  followed  in  the  Brazils  to  prevent  the 
chigoes  from  injuring  the  feet,  is  to  employ  children,  who,  by 
their  sharpness  of  sight,  can  easily  perceive  the  red  spot  on  the 
skin,  where  the  chigo  has  entered.  These  children  are  in  the 
habit  of  extracting  the  insect  from  the  wound  by  means  of  a 
needle.  But  this  is  not  without  risk ;  as,  if  any  portion  of  the 
insect  remains  in  the  wound,  a  dangerous  inflammation  may  ensue. 
For  this  reason,  operators  who  are  renowned  for  their  skill  are 
much  sought  after,  flattered,  and  rewarded  by  the  poor  negroes 
of  the  plantations. 

The  Head  Louse  (Pediculus  capitis,  Fig.  18)  is  an  insect  with 
a  flat  body,  slightly  transparent,  and  of  greyish  colour,  spotted 
with  black  on  the  spiracles,  soft  in  the  middle,  and  rather  hard 
at  the  sides.  The  head,  which  is  oval,  is  furnished  with  two 
thread-like  antennae,  composed  of  five  joints,  which  are  constantly 
in  motion  while  the  creature  is  walking  ;  it  is  also  furnished  with 
two  simple,  round,  black  eyes  ;  and,  lastly,  with  a  mouth.  In  the 
front  of  the  head  is  a  short,  conical,  fleshy  nipple.  This  nipple 
contains  a  sucker  or  rostrum,  which  the  animal  can  put  out  when 
it  likes,  and  which,  when  extended,  represents  a  tubular  body, 
terminating  in  six  little  pointed  hooks,  bent  back,  and  serving 
to  retain  the  instrument  in  the  skin.  This  organ  is  surmounted 

D 


34  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

by  four  fine  hairs,  fixed  to  one  another,  and  seated  in  its  interior. 

It  is  by  means  of  this  complicated  apparatus  that  the  louse  pricks 
and  sucks  the  skin  of  the  head.  The  thorax  is  nearly 
square,  and  divided  into  three  parts  by  deep  incisions. 
The  abdomen,  strongly  lobed  at  the  sides,  is  composed 
of  eight  rings,  and  is  provided  with  sixteen  spiracles. 
The  limbs  are  in  two  parts,  consisting  of  a  thigh  ;  and  a 
shank  and  tarsus  in  a  single  joint,  and  are  very  thick. 

Fig.  is.— Louse  A  strong;  nail,  which  folds  back  on  an  indented  proiec- 

(Pediculus  capi-  .  .  . 

tis)  magnified,  tion,  thus  forming  a  pmcer,  terminates  the  tarsus.  It 
is  with  this  pincer  that  the  louse  fastens  itself  to  the  hair. 

Lice  are  oviparous.  Their  eggs,  which  remain  sticking  to  the 
hair,  are  long  and  white,  and  are  commonly  called  "  nits."  The 
young  are  hatched  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  days;  and  in 
eighteen  days  are  able  to  reproduce  their  kind.  Leuwenhoek 
calculated  that  in  two  months  two  female  lice  could  produce  ten 
thousand !  Other  naturalists  have  asserted  that  the  second  gene- 
ration of  a  single  individual  can  amount  to  two  thousand  five 
hundred,  and  the  third,  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand ! 
Happily  for  the  victims  of  these  disgusting  parasites,  their  repro- 
duction is  not  generally  to  this  prodigious  extent. 

Many  means  are  employed  to  kill  lice.  Lotions  of  the  smaller 
centaury  or  of  stavesacre,  and  pomatum  mixed  with  mercurial 
ointment,  are  very  efficacious.  Eut  the  surest  and  easiest  remed}^ 
is  to  put  plenty  of  oil  on  the  head.  The  oil  kills  the  lice  by 
obstructing  their  tracheae,  and  thus  stopping  respiration. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  lice,  but  we  will  only  mention 
the  louse  which  infests  beggars  and  people  of  unclean  habits, 
Pediculus  humanus  corporis,  producing  the  complaint  called 
phthiriasis.  In  the  victims  of  this  disease  these  parasites  increase 
with  fearful  rapidity.  This  dreadful  disorder  is  often  mentioned 
by  the  ancients.  King  Antiochus,  the  philosopher  Pherecydes  of 
Scyros,  the  contemporary  and  friend  of  Thales,  the  dictator  Sylla, 
Agrippa,  and  Valerius  Maximus  are  said  to  have  been  attacked 
by  phthiriasis,  and  even  to  have  died  of  it.  Amatus  Lusitanus,  a 
Portuguese  doctor  of  the  sixteenth  century,  relates  that  lice  increased 
so  quickly  and  to  such  an  extent  on  a  rich  nobleman  attacked  with 
phthiriasis,  that  the  whole  duty  of  two  of  his  servants  consisted 


APTEEA.  35 

in  carrying  away,  and  throwing  into  the  sea,  whole  basketfuls  of 
the  vermin  which  were  continually  escaping  from  the  person  of 
their  noble  master. 

Little  is  known  at  the  present  day  of  the  details  of  this 
complaint ;  though  it  is  observed  frequently  enough  in  some  parts 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  where  the  dirty  and  miserable  inhabitants 
are  a  prey  to  poverty  and  uncleanliness, — two  misfortunes  which 
often  go  together.  In  Gallicia,  in  Poland,  in  the  Asturias,  and 
in  Spain,  we  may  find  many  victims  of  phthiriasis. 

Lice  increase  with  such  rapidity  on  persons  thus  attacked,  that 
it  is  common  to  attribute  their  appearance  to  spontaneous  genera- 
tion alone.  But  the  prodigious  suddenness  of  reproduction  in 
these  insects  sufficiently  explains  their  increase. 


i)  2 


II. 

DIPTERA. 

ALL  suctorial  insects  which  in  the  perfect  state  possess  only  two 
membraneous  wings,  are  called  Diptera,  from  two  Greek  words 
— 2/e,  two,  and  ^repo*,  wing. 

The  Diptera  were  known  and  scientifically  described  at  a  very 
early  date.  They  are  found  often  mentioned  by  Aristotle  in  his 
History  of  Animals ;  and  he  applied  the  term  to  the  same  insects 
as  now  constitute  the  order. 

The  absence  of  the  second  wings,  common  to  other  insects, 
which  are  in  this  case  replaced  by  two  appendages,  which  have 
received  the  name  of  balancers,*  because  they  serve  to  regulate  the 
action  of  flight,  constitutes  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  Diptera. 
Let  us,  however,  give  a  glance  at  their  other  organs,  which  have 
more  or  less  affinity  with  those  which  exist  in  other  classes  of 
insects,  preserving,  nevertheless,  their  own  especial  characteristics. 

The  mouth,  for  instance — suited  for  suction  only — is  in  the 
form  of  a  trunk,  and  is  composed  of  a  sheath,  a  sucker,  and  two 
palpi.  The  antennae  are  generally  composed  of  only  three  joints. 
The  eyes — usually  two  in  number — are  very  large,  and  sometimes 
take  up  nearly  the  whole  of  the  head.  They  are  both  simple  and 
compound.  The  wings  are  membraneous,  delicate,  and  veined  ; 
the  limbs  long  and  slight.  In  giving  the  history  of  the  principal 
types  of  Diptera,  we  shall  more  fully  explain  the  formation  of 
these  organs. 

The  Diptera,  by  their  rapid  flight,  enliven  both  the  earth  and 
the  air.  The  different  species  abound  in  every  climate,  and  in 

*   Sometimes  called  halter es. — ED. 


DIPTEEA.  37 

every  situation  ;  some  inhabiting  woods,  plains,  fields,  or  banks 
of  rivers  ;  others  preferring  our  houses.  They  each  take  their 
share  of  vegetation,  preferring  either  the  flowers,  the  leaves, 
or  the  stems  of  the  trees  of  our  woods,  our  gardens,  or  our  planta- 
tions. Their  food  varies  very  much ;  and  the  formation  of  the 
sucker  is  regulated  by  it.  Some  imbibe  blood,  others  live  on  the 
secretions  of  animals.  Their  chief  nourishment,  however,  consists 
of  the  juices  of  flowers,  on  whose  brilliant  corollas  the  Diptera 
abound,  either  plundering  from  every  species  indiscriminately, 
or  attaching  themselves  to  some  particular  kind.  They  dis- 
play the  most  wonderful  instinct  in  their  maternal  care,  and 
employ  the  most  varied  and  ingenious  precautions  to  preserve 
their  progeny. 

The  Diptera,  besides  their  variety  and  the  number  of  their 
species,  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their  profusion.  The  myriads 
of  flies  which  rise  from  our  meadows,  which  fly  in  crowds  around 
our  plants,  and  around  every  organised  substance  from  which 
life  has  departed,  some  of  which  even  infest  living  animals,  are 
Diptera. 

The  profusion  with  which  they  are  distributed  over  the  face 
of  the  globe,  causes  them  to  fulfil  two  important  duties  in  the 
economy  of  nature.  On  the  one  hand,  they  furnish  to  insecti- 
vorous birds  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  food ;  on  the  other,  they 
contribute  to  the  removal  of  all  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, and  thus  serve  to  purify  the  air  which  we  breathe.  Their 
fecundity,  the  rapidity  with  which  one  generation  succeeds 
another,  and  their  great  voracity,  added  to  the  extraordinary  quick- 
ness of  their  reproduction,  are  such  that  Linnaeus  tells  us  that 
three  flies  with  the  generations  which  spring  from  them  could  eat 
up  a  dead  horse  as  quickly  as  a  lion  could. 

These  Diptera,  which  are  worthy  of  so  much  attention,  and  de- 
serve so  much  study  with  regard  to  the  part  they  play  in  the  general 
economy  of  nature,  are  an  object  of  fear  and  repulsion  when  one 
considers  their  relations  to  us  and  other  animals.  Gnats  and 
mosquitoes  suck  our  blood  ;  the  gad-fly  and  the  asilus  attack  our 
cattle.  The  order  Diptera  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of 
families,  and  these  families  are  again  divided  into  tribes,  which 
themselves  comprise  several  genera.  We  shall  only  speak  of 


38  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

those  genera  of  Diptera  which  are  composed  of  insects  on  some 
account  remarkable. 

M.  Macquart,  the  learned  author  of  "  L'Histoire  Naturelle  des 
Dipteres,"  *  divides  this  great  class  of  insects  into  two  principal 
groups.  In  one  of  these  groups,  the  antennae  are  formed  of  at  least 
six  joints,  and  the  palpi  of  four  or  five  :  these  are  called  Nemocera. 
In  the  other,  the  antennae  consist  only  of  three  joints,  and  the 
palpi  of  one  or  two :  these  are  the  Brachycera. 

The  Nemocera  may  generally  be  distinguished  from  the  other 
Diptera,  independently  of  the  difference  in  the  antennas  and  palpi, 
by  the  slenderness  of  the  body,  the  smallness  of  the  head,  the 
shape  of  the  thorax,  and  the  length  of  the  feet  and  wings.  The 
result  of  this  organisation  is  a  graceful,  light,  and  aerial  form. 

NEMOCERA. 

Abounding  everywhere,  the  Nemocera  live,  some  on  the  blood 
of  man  and  animals,  some  on  small  insects,  and  others  on  the 
juices  of  fragrant  flowers. 

In  all  climates,  in  every  latitude,  in  the  fields  and  woods,  even 
in  our  dwellings,  they  may  be  seen  fluttering  and  plundering. 
The  Nemocera  are  divided  into  two  families,  that  of  the  Culicidce, 
of  which  the  gnat  (Culex),  which  has  a  long,  thin  trunk,  and 
a  sucker  provided  with  six  bristles,  is  a  member  ;  and  that  of  the 
Tipulidce,  which  have  a  short,  thick  trunk,  and  a  sucker  having  two 
bristles. 

We  will  begin  our  examination  with  the  Gnat  (Culex pipiens), 
of  which  Reaumur  in  his  "  Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire 
des  Insectes,"  has  given  such  a  curious  and  complete  history. 
"The  gnat  is  our  declared  enemy,"  says  Heaumur,  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  his  memoir,  "  and  a  very  troublesome  enemy  it  is.  How- 
ever, it  is  well  to  make  its  acquaintance,  for  if  we  pay  a  little 
attention  we  shall  be  forced  to  admire  it,  and  even  to  admire  the 
instrument  with  which  it  wounds  us.  Besides  which,  through- 
out the  whole  course  of  its  life  it  offers  most  interesting  matter  of 
investigation  to  those  who  are  curious  to  know  the  wonders  of 
nature.  During  a  period  in  its  life  the  observer,  forgetting  that 

*  "Suites  a  Buffon,"  2  vols.,  in  8vo. 


DIPTERA. 


39 


it  will  at  some  time  annoy  him,  feels  the  greatest  interest  in  its 
life-history." 

As  this  is  the  case,  let  us  explain  the  history  of  these  insects, 
which  excite  so  much  interest.  The  illustrious  naturalist  we  have 
just  mentioned  will  be  our  guide. 


Figs.  19  and  20.— The  Gnat  (Culex pipiens). 

The  body  of  the  gnat  is  long  and  cylindrical.  When  in  a  state 
of  repose  one  of  its  wings  is  crossed  over  the  other.  They  present  a 
charming  appearance  when  seen  through  a  microscope,  their 
nervures,  as  well  as  their  edges,  being  completely  covered  with 


Fig.  21.— Antenna  of  Gnat,  magnified. 


Fig.  22.— Head  of  Gnat,  magnified. 


scales,  shaped  like  oblong  plates  and  finely  striated  longitudinally. 
These  scales  are  also  found  on  all  the  segments  of  the  body. 

The  antennae  of  the  gnat,  particularly  those  of  the  male,  have 
a  fine  feathery  appearance  (Fig.  21). 

Their  eyes,  covered  with  network,  are  so  large  that  they  cover 


40  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

nearly  the  whole  of  the  head.  Some  have  eyes  of  a  brilliant 
green  colour,  but  looked  at  in  certain  lights  they  appear  red. 
Fig.  22  shows  the  head  of  the  gnat  with  its  two  eyes,  its  antenna?, 
and  trunk. 

The  instrument  which  the  gnat  employs  for  puncturing  the 
skin,  and  which  is  called  the  trunk  (Fig.  23),  is  well  worthy  of 
our  attention.  That  which  is  generally  seen  is  only  the  case  of 
those  instruments  which  are  intended  to  pierce  our  skin  and  suck 

our  blood,  and  in  which  they 
are  held,  as  lancets  and  other 
instruments  are  held  in  a  sur- 
geon's case.  The  case  (Fig.  24) 
is  cylindrical,  covered  with 
scales,  and  terminates  in  a 
small  knob.  Split  from  end 
to  end  that  it  may  open,  it 
contains  a  perfect  bundle  of 
stings.  Reaumur  tried  to  ob- 
serve, by  allowing  himself  to 
Figs.  23  and  24.  *>e  stung  by  gnats,  what  took 

place  during  the  attack.     He 

forgot,  in  watching  the  operations  of  the  insect,  the  slight  pain 
caused  by  the  wound,  soliciting  it  as  a  favour,  his  only  regret 
being  not  to  obtain  it  when  he  wished. 

Reaumur  observed  that  the  compound  sting,  which  is  about  a 
line  in  length,  enters  the  skin  to  the  depth  of  about  three-quarters 
of  a  line,  and  that  during  that  time  the  case  bends  into  a 
bow,  until  the  two  ends  meet.  He  noticed  besides,  that  the  trunk 
case  of  certain  gnats  was  even  more  complicated  than  that  which 
we  have  described.  But  we  will  not  dwell  any  longer  on  this 
point. 

Let  us  now  try  to  give  an  idea  of  the  construction  and  com- 
position of  this  sting,  which  after  piercing  the  skin  draws  our 
blood. 

According  to  Reaumur,  the  sting  of  the  gnat  is  composed  of 
five  parts.  He  acknowledges,  however,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
be  certain  of  the  exact  number  of  these  parts,  on  account  of  the  way 
in  which  they  are  united,  and  of  their  form.  At  the  present  day  we 


DIPTEEA.  41 

know  that  there  are  six.     Reaumur,  as  also  Leuwenhoek,  thought 

he  saw  two  in  the  form  of  a  sword  blade  with  three  edges.     These 

have  the  points  reversed,  and  are  serrated  on  the  convex  side  of 

the  bend  (Fig.  25).     To  form  an  idea  of  the  shape  of  the  other 

points,  the  reader  should  look  at  Figs.  26  and  27.     He  will  then 

see  that  the  gnat's  sting  is  a  sword  in  miniature. 

The  prick  made  by  so  fine  a  point  as  that  of  the  sting  of  the 

gnat,   ought  not  to  cause  any  pain.     "  The  point  of  the  finest 

needle, "  says  Reaumur,    "compared    to 

the  sting  of  the  gnat,  is  the  same  as  the 

point  of  a  sword  compared  to  that  of  the 

needle."      How  is  it  then  that  so  small 

a  wound  does  not  heal  at  once  ?      How 

is  it  that  small  bumps  arise  on  the  part 

that  is  stung  ?     The  fact  is,  that  it  is  not 

only  a  wound,  but  it  has  been  imbued  with 

an  irritating  liquid.  Fips  25 '  26  27 

This  liquid  may  be  seen  to  exude,  under 

different  circumstances,  from  the  trunk  of  the  gnat,  like  a  drop  of 
very  clear  water. 

Reaumur  sometimes  saw  this  liquid  even  in  the  trunk  itself. 
"  There  is  nothing  better,"  he  observes,  "  to  prevent  the  bad 
effects  of  gnat  bites  than  at  once  to  dilute  the  liquid  they 
have  left  in  the  wound  with  water.  However  small  this  wound 
may  be,  it  will  not  be  difficult  for  water  to  be  introduced.  By 
rubbing,  it  will  be  at  once  enlarged,  and  there  is  nothing  to  do 
but  to  wash  it.  I  have  sometimes  found  this  remedy  answer 
very  well." 

The  gnat  is  not  always  in  the  form  of  a  winged  insect,  greedy 
for  our  blood.  There  is  a  period  during  which  they  leave  us  in 
repose.  This  is  the  larva  period.  It  is  in  water,  and  in  stagnant 
water  in  particular,  that  the  larva  of  the  insect  which  occupies 
our  attention  is  to  be  found.  It  resembles  a  worm,  and  may  be 
found  in  ponds  from  the  month  of  May  until  the  commencement 
of  winter. 

If  we  desire  to  follow  the  larva  of  the  gnat  from  the 
beginning,  we  have  only  to  keep  a  bucket  of  water  in  the  open 
air.  After  a  few  days  this  water  will  be  observed  to  be  full 


42 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


of  the  larvae  of  the  gnat  (Fig.  28).  They  are  very  small,  and 
come  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  breathe ;  for  which  purpose 
they  extend  the  opening  of  a  pipe,  A,  which  is  attached  to  the 
last  segment  of  the  body,  a  little  above  the  surface.  They 
are,  consequently,  obliged  to  hold  their  heads  down.  By  the 
side  of  the  breathing-tube  is  another  tube,  B,  shorter  and  thicker 
than  the  former,  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  body,  its^  orifice 
being  the  exterior  termination  of  the  digestive -tube.  At  the 
anus  it  is  fringed  with  long  hairs,  having  the  appearance,  when 
in  the  water,  of  a  funnel.  At  the  end  of 
the  same  tube,  and  inside  the  hair  funnel,  are 
four  thin,  oval,  transparent,  scaly  blades,  hav- 
ing the  appearance  of  fins.  They  are  placed 
in  pairs,  of  which  one  emanates  from  the  right 
side,  the  other  from  the  left. 

These  four  blades  or  fins  have  the  power 
of  separating  from  each  other.  Each  segment 
of  the  abdomen  has  on  both  sides  a  tuft  of 
hair,  and  the  thorax  has  three.  The  head  is 
round  and  flat,  and  is  provided  with  two 
simple  brown  eyes.  Round  the  mouth  are 
several  wattles,  furnished  with  hair,  of  which 
two  of  crescent-like  form  are  the  most  con- 
spicuous. These  tufts  move  with  great  quick- 
ness, causing  small  currents  of  liquid  to  flow 
into  the  mouth,  by  means  of  which  the  necessary  food,  microscopic 
insects  and  particles  of  vegetable  and  earthy  matter,  is  brought 
to  the  larva. 

They  change  their  skin  many  times  during  their  continuance 
in  this  state.  This  latter  fact  has  been  remarked  by  Dom 
Allou,  a  learned  Carthusian,  "whose  pleasure,"  says  Reaumur, 
"consisted  in  admiring  the  works  of  the  Almighty,  when  not 
occupied  in  singing  his  praises/'  We  think  it  will  be  inte- 
resting to  repeat  the  few  lines  which  accompany  the  mention 
made  by  Reaumur  of  this  worthy  Carthusian.  They  appear  to  us 
to  be  well  worth  reading  even  at  the  present  day. 

"  If  the  pious  monks  who  compose  so  many  societies,  possessed, 
like  Dom  Allou,  the  love  of  observing  insects,  we  might  hope 


Fig.  28.— Larva  of  the 
Gnat. 


DIPTEEA.  43 

that  the  most  essential  facts  in  the  history  of  those  little  creatures 
would  soon  be  made  known  to  us.  "What  enjoyment  more  worthy 
of  the  calling  they  have  chosen  could  these  pious  men  pursue  than 
that  which  would  place  before  their  eyes  the  marvellous  creations 
of  an  Almighty  Power  ?  Even  their  leisure  would  then  incline 
them  to  adore  that  Power,  and  would  furnish  them  the  means  to 
make  others  do  so  who  are  occupied  by  too  serious  or  too  frivolous 
employments." 

After  having  changed  its  skin  three  times  in  a  fortnight  or 
three  weeks,  the  larva  of  the  gnat  throws  off  its  covering  for  a 
fourth  time;  but  it  is  no  longer  in  that  state.  It  is  changed 
both  in  shape  and  condition.  Instead  of  being  oblong,  its  body 
is  shortened,  rounded,  and  bent  in  such  a  way  that  the  tail  is 
applied  to  the  underneath  part  of  the  head.  This  is  the  case 
when  the  animal  is  in  repose ;  but  it  is  able  to  move  and  swim,  and 
then,  by  bending  its  body  and  straightening  it  again,  propels 
itself  through  the  water. 

In    this   new    condition,   that    is   to   say,  in    the    pupa  state 
(Fig.  29),  it  does  not  eat.    It  no  longer  possesses  digestive 
organs,  but  it   is  necessary,  even   more   than   before  its 
metamorphosis,  that  it   should   breathe  atmospheric  air. 
Besides,  the  organs  of   respiration  are  greatly  changed. 
During  the  time  the  insect  was  in  the  larva  state,  it  was 
through  the  long  tube  fixed  to  the  posterior  part  that  it 
received  or  expelled  the  air ;    but  in  casting  its  skin  it 
loses  the  tube,  two  appendages  resembling  an  ass's  ears 
being  for  the  pupa  what  the  tube  was  for  the  larva,  the 
openings  of  these  ears  being  held  above  the  surface  of  the 
water.     From  this  pupa  the  perfect  insect  will  emerge  ;  P^2of 
it  is  developed  little  by  little,  and  the  principal  members  the  Gnat- 
may  be  distinguished  under  the  transparent  membraneous  skin 
which  envelops  it. 

When  the  insect  is  about  to  change  from  the  pupa  state,  it  lies 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  straightening  the  hind  part  of  its 
body,  and  extending  itself  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  above  which 
the  thorax  is  raised.  Before  it  has  been  a  moment  in  this  position, 
its  skin  splits  between  the  two  breathing  trumpets,  the  split  in- 
creasing very  rapidly  in  length  and  breadth. 


44  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

"  It  leaves,"  says  Reaumur,  "  a  portion  of  the  thorax  of  the 
gnat,  easily  to  be  recognised  by  the  freshness  of  its  colour,  which 
is  green,  and  different  from  the  skin  in  which  it  was  before 
enveloped,  uncovered. 

"  As  soon  as  the  slit  is  enlarged — and  to  do  so  sufficiently  is 
the  work  of  a  moment — the  fore  part  of  the  perfect  insect  is  not 
long  in  showing  itself;  and  soon  afterwards  the  head  appears, 
rising  above  the  edges  of  the  opening.  But  this  moment,  and 
those  which  follow,  until  the  gnat  has  entirely  left  its  covering, 
are  most  critical,  and  when  it  is  exposed  to  fearful  danger.  This 
insect,  which  lately  lived  in  the  water,  is  suddenly  in  a  position 
in  which  it  has  nothing  to  fear  so  much  as  water.  If  it  were 
upset  on  the  water,  and  the  water  were  to  touch  its  thorax  or  body, 
it  would  be  fatal.  This  is  the  way  in  which  it  acts  in  this  critical 
position.  As  soon  as  it  has  got  out  its  head  and  thorax  it  lifts 
them  as  high  as  it  is  able  above  the  opening  through  which  they 
had  emerged,  and  then  draws  the  posterior  part  of  its  body 
through  the  same  opening ;  or  rather,  that  part  pushes  itself  for- 
ward by  contracting  a  little  and  then  lengthening  again,  the 
roughness  of  the  covering  from  which  it  desires  to  extricate  itself 
serving  as  an  assistance. 

"A  larger  portion  of  the  gnat  is  thus  uncovered,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  head  is  advanced  farther  towards  the  anterior  end 
of  the  covering ;  but  as  it  advances  in  this  direction,  it  rises 
more  and  more,  the  anterior  and  posterior  ends  of  the  sheath  thus 
becoming  quite  empty.  The  sheath  then  becomes  a  sort  of  boat, 
into  which  the  water  does  not  enter;  and  it  would  be  fatal 
if  it  did.  The  water  could  not  find  a  passage  to  the  farther 
end,  and  the  edges  of  the  anterior  end  could  not  be  submerged 
until  the  other  was  considerably  sunk.  The  gnat  itself  is  the 
mast  of  its  little  boat.  Large  boats,  which  pass  under  bridges, 
have  masts  which  can  be  lowered ;  as  soon  as  the  boat  has  passed 
the  bridge,  the  mast  is  hoisted  up  by  degrees,  until  it  is  perpen- 
dicular. The  gnat  rises  thus  until  it  becomes  the  mast  of  its  own 
little  boat,  and  a  vertical  mast  also.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  how 
it  is  able  to  put  itself  in  such  a  singular,  though  for  it  necessary, 
position,  and  also  how  it  can  keep  it.  The  fore  part  of  the  boat  is 
much  more  loaded  than  the  other,  but  it  is  also  much  broader. 


DIPTEEA. 


45 


Any  one  who  observes  how  deep  the  fore  part  of  the  boat  is,  and 
how  near  the  edges  of  its  sides  are  to  the  water,  forgets  for  the 


Fig.  30.— Gnats  emerging. 


time  being  that  the  gnat  is  an  insect  that  he  would  willingly 
destroy  at  other  times.  One  feels  uneasy  for  its  fate  ;  and  the 
more  so  if  the  wind  happens  to  rise,  particularly  if  it  disturbs  the 


•'  /: 

46  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

surface  of  the  water.  But  one  sees  with  pleasure  that  there  is  air 
enough  to  carry  the  gnat  along  quickly ;  it  is  carried  from  side  to 
side ;  it  makes  different  voyages  in  the  bucket  in  which  it  is  borne. 
Though  it  is  only  a  sort  of  boat,  or  rather  mast,  because  its  wings 
and  legs  are  fixed  close  to  its  body,  it  is  perhaps,  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  its  boat,  a  larger  sail  than  one  would  dare  to  put  on  a 
real  vessel ;  one  cannot  help  fearing  that  the  little  boat  will  capsize. 
*  *  *  As  soon  as  the  boat  is  capsized,  as  soon  as  the  gnat  is 
laid  "on  the  surface  of  the  water,  there  is  no  chance  left  for  it. 
I  have  sometimes  seen  the  water  covered  with  gnats  which  had 
perished  thus  as  soon  as  they  were  born.  It  is,  however,  still 
more  extraordinary  that  the  gnat  is  able  to  finish  its  operations. 
Happily  they  do  not  last  long ;  all  dangers  may  be  passed  over  in 
a  minute. 

"  The  gnat,  after  raising  itself  perpendicularly,  draws  its  two 
front  legs  from  the  sheath,  and  brings  them  forward.  It  then 
draws  out  the  two  next.  It  now  no  longer  tries  to  maintain 
its  uneasy  position,  but  leans  towards  the  water ;  gets  near  it,  and 
places  its  feet  upon  it ;  the  water  is  sufficiently  firm  and  solid 
support  for  them,  and  is  able  to  bear  them,  although  burdened 
with  the  insect's  body.  As  soon  as  the  insect  is  thus  on  the 
water  it  is  in  safety ;  its  wings  are  unfolded  and  dried,  which  is 
done  sooner  than  it  takes  to  tell  it ;  at  length  the  gnat  is  in  a 
position  to  use  them,  and  it  is  soon  seen  to  fly  away,  particularly 
if  one  tries  to  catch  it." 

One  more  word  about  the  gnat,  whose  life  is  full  of  such 
interesting  details. 

The  reader  will  perhaps  not  feel  much  pleasure  in  learning  that 
the  fecundity  of  these  insects  is  extraordinary.  Many  generations 
are  born  in  a  single  year,  each  generation  requiring  only  three 
weeks  or  a  month  to  arrive  at  a  condition  to  bring  forth  a  new 

generation.  Thus,  the  number  of  gnats 
which  comes  into  existence  in  the 
course  of  a  year  is  something  fearful. 
Only  a  few  days  after  the  pupae  in 

Fie.  31.— Eggs  of  the  Gnat,  magnified.  ,        ,  ,    .     , 

a  bucket  are  transformed  into  gnats, 

eggs  which  have  been  left  by  the  females  may  be  observed  floating 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  little  clusters. 


DIPTEEA.  47 

Many  species  of  gnat,  known  as  mosquitoes,  are  to  be  found  in 
America.  All  travellers  speak  of  the  sufferings  endured  by  a 
stranger  in  that  country,  from  the  bites  of  these  insects.  One  can 
only  preserve  oneself  from  these  cruel  enemies  during  sleep  by 
hanging  gauze,  called  a  mosquito  curtain,  round  the  bed.  Mos- 
quito curtains  are  not  only  necessary  in  America.  During  the 
hot  season,  in  Spain,  throughout  the  whole  of  Italy,  and  a  part  of 
the  south  of  France,  it  is  necessary  to  hang  these  curtains  round 
the  bed,  if  one  wishes  to  obtain  any  sleep  :  it  is  also  a  necessary 
precaution  not  to  have  a  light  in  one's  bedchamber,  as  the  sight 
of  it  at  once  attracts  these  dangerous  companions,  whose  buzzing 
and  stinging  prevent  any  possibility  of  repose  during  the  whole 
night.  Such  is  our  advice  to  people  who  travel  in  the  above- 
mentioned  countries. 

The  TipulidcB  have  a  narrow,  elongated  abdomen,  and  long 
and  slight  limbs.  The  head  is  round,  and  the  eyes,  which  are 
compound,  are,  especially  in  the  males,  very  large.  The  wings, 
which  are  long  and  narrow,  are  sometimes  held  wide  apart, 
sometimes  horizontally,  and  sometimes  bent  so  as  to  form,  as  it 
were,  a  roof.  The  balancers  are  naked  and  elongated ;  the  abdomen 
long,  cylindrical,  and  often  terminating  in  a  club  in  the  male,  and 
in  a  point  in  the  female.  The  antennae,  which  are  longer  than 
the  head,  are  generally  composed  of  from  fourteen  to  sixteen 
joints,  and  are  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  comb  or  saw,  some- 
times furnished  with  hair,  in  form  of  plumes,  bunches,  or  in  a 
whorl.  The  larvae  live  on  plants,  in  the  fields,  in  gardens,  and 
sometimes  in  woods.  The  perfect  insects,  at  first  sight,  resemble 
gnats,  but  are  without  a  trunk,  or  rather  their  trunk  is  extremely 
short,  terminating  in  two  large  lips,  and  the  sucker  is  composed 
of  two  fibres  only.*  The  larger  species  of  Tipulte,  which  are 

*  The  genus  Cecidowyia,  which  "belongs  to  this  family,  presents  the  most  extraordi- 
nary instance  of  agamo-genesis,  or  reproduction  without  fertilisation  by  another  in- 
dividual, at  present  known  among  insects.  Until  lately  it  was  almost  an  axiom 
with  naturalists  that  no  insect  was  capable  of  reproduction  until  it  had  attained  its 
adult  or  perfect  state.  Several  continental  observers,  some  of  them  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  others'  discoveries,  have  found  that  the  larv ce  of  some  of  the  species 
of  this  genus  reproduce  larvae  resembling  themselves  in  every  respect ;  and  what  is 
still  more  strange,  these  larvae  live  in  a  free  state  within  the  parent  larva,  feeding 
upon  its  tissues,  and  causing  its  ultimate  destruction. 

A  very  interesting  article  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  the  "  Popular  Science 


48  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

commonly  known  as  "  Daddy  Longlegs,"  &c.,  and  in  France  as 
"  Tailleurs  "  and  "  Couturier -es"  are  found  in  fields  at  the  end  of 
September  and  commencement  of  October. 

"Although  they  sometimes  fly  a  considerable  distance,"  says 
Reaumur,  "  when  the  sun  is  bright  and  hot,  they  generally  do 
not  go  far ;  often,  indeed,  only  along  the  ground,  or  rather 
the  top  of  the  grass.  Sometimes  they  only  use  their  wings  to 
keep  them  above  the  level  of  the  herbage,  and  to  take  them 
along.  Their  legs,  particularly  the  hind  ones,  are  disproportionately 
large.  They  are  three  times  the  length  of  the  body,  and  are  to 
these  insects  what  stilts  are  to  the  peasants  of  marshy  and  in- 
undated countries,  enabling  them  to  pass  with  ease  over  the  higher 
blades  of  grass." 

One  of  the  smaller  species  has  been  termed  culiciformis,  on  account 
of  its  resemblance  to  the  gnat.  The  smaller  are  more  active  than 
the  larger  species  which  we  have  mentioned.  Not  only  do  they  fly 
more  rapidly,  but  there  are  some  kinds  which  are  continually  on 
the  wing.  In  all  seasons,  even  during  the  winter,  at  certain  hours 
of  the  day,  clouds  of  small  insects  are  seen  in  the  air,  which  are 
taken  for  gnats :  they  are  Tipulce.  Their  flight  is  worthy  of  atten- 
tion ;  they  generally  only  rise  and  fall  in  the  same  vertical  line. 
All  these  flies  come  from  larvae,  which  resemble  very  elongated 
worms,  having  scaly  heads,  generally  furnished  with  two  very 
small  conical  antennae,  and  certain  other  organs,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  food.  Their  bodies  are  jointed,  without  limbs, 
but  nevertheless  provided  with  appendages  which  supply  their 
place.  The  larvae  of  the  various  species  are  of  very  different  habits. 
Some  are  aquatic,  as  that  of  Tipula  culiciformis,  a  small  species 
which  is  very  numerous  in  stagnant  waters. 

It  is  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  about  these  wormlike  larvae, 
which  are  extremely  common.  They  are  of  a  brilliant  red  colour, 
and  inhabit  little  oblong  bent  masses  of  earth,  thickly  pierced  with 
holes.  Each  hole  allows  a  worm  to  extend  its  head,  and  the  fore- 
most part  of  its  body,  out  of  the  cell.  They  are  made  of  light, 
spongy  matters,  remains  of  decayed  leaves,  &c.  These  larvae 
are  transformed  into  pupae,  in  the  cell  in  which  they  have  lived 

Keview"  for  the  1st  April  of  this  year.  The  larva  of  a  species  (Cecidomyia  tritici) 
frequently  causes  much  injury  to  the  wheat. — ED. 


DIPTEEA. 


49 


during  the  larva  state,  losing  by  this  metamorphosis  the  scaly 
coverings  of  the  head  and  of  all  the  exterior  parts.  They  pass 
into  the  pupa  state,  are  furnished  with  legs  and  wings,  and  have 
the  thorax  provided  with  dainty  plumes,  which  probably  assist  in 
the  action  of  respiration.  This  pupa  is  very  active  and  quick  in 
its  movements  in  the  water.  When  the  moment  comes  for  its 
last  metamorphosis,  it  throws  off  its  feathery  covering  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  the  gnat. 


Fig.  32.— Daddy  Longlegs  (Tipula  olerace-i).    . 

Fig.  32  represents  Tipula  oleracea  in  the  different  stages  of 
larva,  pupa,  and  perfect  insect. 

Other  species  of  small  Tipulce  have  aquatic  larvae  very  similar 
to  those  which  we  have  described.  Reaumur  remarked  that  each 
of  these  worms  is  lodged  in  a  thick  mass,  convex  at  the  top,  formed 
of  a  transparent  and  adhesive  white  jelly.  As  for  the  larvae  of  the 
larger  Tipulce,  they  are  not  aquatic,  but  are  of  different  habits, 
and  live  under  the  ground,  all  soil  which  is  not  frequently  turned 
is  suitable  to  them,  but  they  are  to  be  found  especially  in  low  damp 
meadows. 

E 


50  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

Reaumur  saw  large  districts  of  grassy  swamps  in  Poictou  which 
in  certain  years  furnished  very  little  grass  for  the  cattle,  on 
account  of  the  ravages  caused  by  these  larvae.  They  had  also 
much  injured  the  harvest  in  the  same  districts  during  those 
years. 

These  larvae  appear  to  require  no  other  food  than  vegetable 
mould.  Their  excrements  are,  in  fact,  according  to  Reaumur, 
nothing  else  than  dried  earth,  from  which  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines of  the  insect  have  withdrawn  all  nourishing  matter. 

Old  trees  have  often  hollow  cavities  occasioned  by  the  decay 
of  the  trunk.  When  these  cavities  are  old,  their  lower  parts 
are  full  of  a  sort  of  mould  which  is  in  fact  half- decayed  wood. 
It  is  there  that  the  TipulcB  often  lay  their  eggs.  Reaumur  fre- 
quently found  the  larvae  in  the  trunks  of  elms  or  willows,  and 
also  in  the  fleshy  parts  of  certain  kinds  of  mushrooms.  He  care- 
fully observed  the  habits  of  one,  which  lived  under  the  covering 
of  a  mushroom,  the  Oak  agaricus.  This  larva  is  round,  grey, 
and  resembles  an  earth-worm.  It  does  not  walk,  but  crawls  ; 
and  the  places  where  it  stops,  or  which  it  passes  over,  are 
covered  with  a  sort  of  brilliant  slime,  like  that  left  by  the  snail 
or  slug. 

M.  Gu^rin-Meneville  has  published  some  very  interesting  re- 
marks on  the  migrations  of  the  larvae  of  a  particular  kind  of 
Tipula,  known  by  the  name  of  Sciara.  We  will  borrow  from  that 
entomologist  the  following  curious  details,  which  will  initiate  us 
into  one  of  the  most  wonderful  phenomena  in  the  whole  history 
of  insects.  These  small  larvae  are  without  feet,  hardly  five 
lines  in  length,  and  about  the  third  of  a  line  in  diameter. 
They  are  composed  of  thirteen  segments,  and  have  small  black 
heads. 

In  some  years,  during  the  month  of  July,  may  be  found  on  the 
borders  of  forests  in  Norway  and  Hanover,  immense  trains  of  these 
larvae,  formed  by  the  union  of  an  innumerable  quantity  fixed  to 
each  other  by  a  sticky  substance.  These  collections  of  larvae 
resemble  some  sort  of  strange  animal  of  serpent-like  form,  several 
feet  long,  one  or  two  inches  in  thickness,  and  formed  by  the  union 
of  an  immense  number,  which  cling  to  each  other  by  thousands, 
and  move  on  together.  The  whole  society  advances  thus  with  one 


DIPTEEA.  51 

accord,  leaving  a  track  after  it  on  the  ground,  as  a  material  in- 
dication of  its  presence. 

These  strange  collections  of  living  creatures  form  societies, 
sometimes  only  a  few  yards  long ;  but  at  other  times  it  hap- 
pens that  they  form  bands  from  ten  to  twelve  yards  in  length, 
of  the  breadth  of  a  hand  and  the  thickness  of  a  thumb.  M. 
Guerin-Meneville  observed  columns  as  many  as  thirty  yards  in 
length.  These  troops  advance  as  slowly  as  a  snail,  and  in  a  certain 
direction.  If  they  encounter  an.  obstacle — as  a  stone,  for  instance 
— they  cross  over  it,  turn  round  it,  or  else  divide  into  two 
sections,  which  reunite  after  the  obstacle  is  passed.  If  a  portion  of 
the  column  be  removed  so  as  to  divide  it  into  two  parts,  it  is 
quickly  re-united,  as  the  hindmost  portion  soon  joins  that  which 
precedes  it.  Lastly,  if  the  posterior  part  of  this  living  ribbon  be 
brought  into  contact  with  the  anterior,  a  circle  is  formed,  which 
turns  round  and  round  on  the  same  ground  for  a  long  time,  some- 
times even  for  a  whole  day,  before  breaking,  and  continuing  to 
advance.  They  are  never  met  with  in  bad  weather ;  but  only 
when  the  sun  is  warm. 

The  curious  and  astonishing  phenomenon  of  an  assembly  of 
larvaB  without  feet,  advancing  with  an  equal  movement  result- 
ing from  the  individual  motion  of  thousands  of  little  worms, 
was  remarked  for  the  first  time,  in  1603,  by  Gaspard  Schwenefelt. 
This  naturalist  says  that  the  inhabitants  of  Siberia  consider  this 
phenomenon  as  an  indication  of  a  bad  harvest  if  they  go  to- 
wards the  mountains ;  whereas,  if  they  descend  towards  the  plains, 
it  is  a  sign  of  a  good  one.  In  1715  Jonas  Ramus  mentioned  the 
same  phenemenon,  recalling  a  superstition  attached  to  it  by  the 
peasants  of  Norway.  This  writer  informs  us  that  the  peasants  of 
that  country,  on  meeting  one  of  these  moving  columns,  throw 
down  their  belts,  or  waistcoats,  on  the  ground  before  it.  If  the 
orme-drag  (that  is  the  name  given  to  the  moving  column)  crosses 
over  this  obstacle,  it  is  a  good  sign ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
the  column  turns  round  the  obstacle,  instead  of  crossing  it,  some 
mischief  may  be  expected. 

The  same  animals  were  observed  in  1845  at  Birkenmoor, 
near  Hefeld,  by  M.  Rande,  Royal  Inspector  of  the  "Forests  of 
Hanover. 

E2 


52  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

M.  Guerin-Meneville  is  of  opinion  that  these  larvae,  which 
exist  in  great  numbers  in  certain  districts,  sometimes  devour 
all  the  nutritive  substances  contained  in  the  ground.  After 
having  done  so,  they  are  obliged  to  come  out  of  it,  in  order  to 
seek  at  a  distance  a  place  where  they  will  find  food,  or  perhaps 
only  a  suitable  place  to  undergo  their  metamorphosis.  It  is  then 
that  this  singular  journey  commences.  As  regards  the  uniting  of 
these  myriads  of  individuals  into  columns,  M.  Guerin-Meneville 
thinks  that  it  can  be  explained  by  the  necessity  these  insects  feel 
for  mutual  protection  against  the  drying  effect  of  the  atmosphere 
when  they  are  forced  to  leave  the  ground.  United  into  masses, 
and  moistened  by  the  glutinous  matter  which  connects  them,  they 
can  leave  their  former  place  of  abode  without  danger  ;  if  each 
were  by  itself,  they  would  soon  perish.  Here,  as  in  other  cases, 
union  is  strength  ;  and  the  strength  of  these  larvae  lies  in  this 
protecting  moisture.  However  it  may  be  explained,  the  migrations 
of  these  troops  of  insects  are  among  the  most  astonishing  pheno- 
mena of  nature. 

BRACHYCERA. 


The  Brachycera,  from  ftpayyc,  "short,"  and  itepac,  "a  horn," 
those  Diptera  having  short  antennae,  are  divided  into  four  groups. 
In  this  subdivision  the  sucker  is  composed  of  six  bristles.  Amongst 
other  families  it  includes  that  of  the  Tabanidtz,  the  insects 
belonging  to  which  family  are  of  remarkable  strength,  and  pos- 
sessed of  daring  and  courage  in  the  highest  degree.  Their 
wings  are  provided  with  powerful  muscles,  their  feet  are  very 
strong,  and  their  trunk  is  provided  with  six  flat,  sharp  lancets. 
Distributed  over  the  entire  world,  their  instinct  is  everywhere 
the  same  :  it  is  the  desire  for  blood,  at  least  in  the  females,  for 
the  males  are  not  so  warlike.  They  do  no  harm,  but  live  on  the 
juices  of  flowers.  They  are  chiefly  found  in  woods  and  pastures, 
and,  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  in  summer,  may  be  seen 
flying  about,  seeking  for  their  prey. 

M.  de  Saint-Fargeau  has  described  the  manner  in  which  the 
males  fly.  They  may  be  seen  flying  hither  and  thither  in  the  glades 
of  woods,  remaining  for  some  time  suspended  in  the  air,  then  dart- 


DIPTEBA. 


53 


ing  quickly  and  suddenly  away  a  yard  or  two,  again  taking  up 
the  same  immovable  position,  and  in  each  of  these  movements 
turning  the  head  to  the  opposite  way  from  that  in  which  they  are 
going.  This  naturalist  is  certain  that  on  these  occasions  they  are 
watching  for  the  females,  which  they  dart  upon.  When  they 
have  succeeded  in  doing  so,  they  rise  so  high  as  to  be  out  of 
sight. 

To  this  group  belongs  the  genus  Tabanus. 

The  first  species  we  shall  mention,  Tabanus  autumnalis  (Fig. 
33),  a  common  species,  is  eight  or  nine  lines  in  length,  and  of 


Fig.  33.— Tabanus  autumnalis.  Fig.  34.— Chrysops  csecutiens. 

blackish  colour.  The  palpi,  the  face,  and  the  forehead  are  grey ; 
the  antennae  black ;  the  thorax  grey,  striped  with  brown ;  the 
abdomen  spotted  with  yellow,  the  legs  of  a  yellowish  white,  and 
the  outer  edge  of  the  wings  brown. 

Another  species  ( Tabanus  bovinus)  is  twelve  lines  in  length,  and 
of  a  blackish  brown.  The  palpi,  the  face,  and  the  forehead  are 
yellow,  the  antennae  black,  with  a  whitish  base;  the  thorax,  covered 
with  yellow  hair,  is  striped  with  black  ;  the  posterior  edge  of  the 
segments  of  the  abdomen  pale  yellow ;  the  legs  yellowish,  with 


54  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

the  extremities  black,  and  the  exterior  edge  of  the  wings  yellow. 
This  species  is  frequently  met  with  in  woods. 

A  third  species,  Chrysops  ccecutiens  (Fig.  34),  which  belongs 
to  the  same  family,  and  of  which  the  generic  name  chrysops 
signifies  golden-eyed,  torments  horses  and  cattle  very  much  by 
stinging  them  round  the  eyes.  Its  thorax  is  of  yellowish  colour, 
striped  or  spotted  with  black ;  the  abdomen  yellow,  and  the  eyes 
golden. 

In  the  next  group  of  the  Brachycera  the  sucker  is  composed  of 

four  bristles,  and  the  antennae  gene- 
rally terminate  in  a  point  which 
appears  to  be  rather  a  development 
than  an  appendage. 

This  group  includes  a  number  of 
genera,  but  the  following  only  pos- 
sess sufficient  interest  to  claim  our 
attention.  From  the  Tanystomce  we 
select  the  families  of  the  Asilici,  Em- 
pidice,  and  Bombyliarii.  As  types  of 
the  Brachystomce  we  select  the  Lep- 
tides  and  Syrphici. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the 
Asilici  is  strength.  All  their  organs 
combine  to  produce  this  quality, 
which  they  display  only  too  much, 
being  as  formidable  to  cattle  as  the 
Tabani,  but  even  surpassing  those 
insects  in  native  cruelty. 

The  Asilici  unceasingly  attack  other 
insects,  and  even  those  of  their  own 
kind.  Their  trunk  is  strong ;  one  of 

Fig.  35.— Asilus  crabroniformis.  lV       m  on  i  •      r         •  i      ^ 

the  li  ores  oi  the  sucker   is  iurnisned 

with  small  points,  turned  back,  which  are  intended  to  hold  firmly 
to  the  body  into  which  it  has  entered.  They  carry  on  their 
devastations  in  the  glades  of  woods  and  on  sunny  roads. 

We  will  mention  in  this  group,  Asilus  crabroniformis  (Fig.  35), 
an  insect  ten  to  twelve  lines  long,  having  a  yellow  head,  black 
antennae,  and  thorax  of  a  brownish  yellow.  The  three  first  seg- 


DIPTEKA.  55 

inents  of  the  abdomen  are  black,  the  second  and  third  having  a 
white  spot  on  each  side,  the  remaining  segments  are  yellow.  The 
wings  are  yellowish,  spotted  with  black  on  the  inner  and  hind 
margin.  This  species  is  common  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and 
lives  at  the  expense  of  caterpillars  and  other  insects,  of  which 
it  sucks  the  blood  with  the  greatest  voracity. 

The  Empidm  live  in  the  same  way  as  the  Asilici,  but  the  males 
are  chiefly  nourished  by  the  juices  of  flowers. 

"  The  rapine  they  exercise  on  other  insects,"  says  M.  Macquart,  in 
his  "Histoire  Naturelle  des  Dipteres,"  "takes  place  either  when 
flying  or  running,  and  they  seize  their  victims  with  their  feet, 
which  are  formed  in  various  ways,  and  well  adapted  for  their 
purpose.  But  it  is  in  the  air  that  their  hunting,  as  well  as  their 
amours,  chiefly  take  place.  They  unite  together  in  numerous 
companies,  which  during  fine  summer  evenings  whirl  like  gnats 
about  the  water's  edge.  A  singular  observation,  however,  that  I 
have  made  on  the  Empis,  is,  that  among  the  thousands  of  pairs 
that  I  have  seen  resting  on  hedges  and  bushes,  nearly  all  the 
females  were  occupied  in  sucking  an  insect ;  some  had  hold  of 
small  Phryganece*  others  of  Ephemera,^  and  the  greater  part  of 
Tipufo." 

The  Empidice  have  the  trunk  bent  down,  and  resembling  the  beak 
of  a  bird,  but  the  Bombyliarii>  on  the  contrary,  have  the  trunk 
extended  straight  in  front. 

The  prevailing  type  which  has  given  its  name  to  this  latter  group 
is  easily  to  be  recognised  by  the  elegance  of  the  fur  which  covers 
its  body,  the  slenderness  of  its  feet,  and  the  length  of  its  wings, 
which  extend  horizontally  on  each  side  of  the  body. 

Much,  more  common  in  hot  climates  than  in  the  North,  these 
insects,  the  larvae  of  which  are  not  yet  known,  take  flight  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  when  the  sun's  rays  are  hottest.  They  fly  very 
fast,  making  a  dull  buzzing  sound,  and  hover  over  flowers,  from 
which  they  draw  the  juices  without  settling. 

Fig.  36  represents  the  Bombylius  major,  which  is  common 
enough  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe.  This  insect  is  from  four 
to  six  lines  long,  black,  with  yellow  fur  ;  the  feet  light  yellow  ; 
and  the  wings  have  the  edges  bordered  with  a  sinuous  brown  band. 
*  The  insects  produced  by  the  caddis  or  case  -worm. — ED.  t  May-fly  family. — ED. 


56 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


The  genus  Anthrax,  belonging  to  this  family,  has  a  different  form 
to  Bombylms.     The  body  is  much  less  hairy  ;  the  trunk  is  short 

and  concealed  in  the  mouth  ;  the  wings, 
which  ar6  very  large,  are  clothed,  at  least 
in  the  principal  genus,  in  a  garb  of 
mourning  sufficiently  remarkable,  in  which 
the  combinations  of  black  and  white  are 
admirably  diversified. 

"Here,"  says  M.  Macquart,  "the  line 
which  separates  the  two  colours  is 
straight,  there  it  represents  gradations,  in 
other  cases  it  is  deeply  sinuous.  Some- 
times the  dark  part  shows  transparent 
points,  or  the  glassy  part  dark  spots. 
This  sombre  garb,  added  to  the  velvet 
black  of  the  body,  gives  the  Anthrax  a 
most  elegant  appearance  ;  and  while 
resting  on  the  corolla  of  the  honey- 
suckle and  hawthorn  to  suck  the  juice, 
form  a  most  striking  contrast,  and  set 
forth  its  beauty  no  less  than  that  of 
those  lovely  flowers." 

Anthrax  sinuata  is  common  in  Europe. 

The  family  of  the  Syrphici  includes  three  remarkable  types, 

which  we  could  not  pass  over  in  silence. 
They  are  Vermileo,  Volucella,  and  Helo- 
philus. 

Vermileo  de  Geeri  (Fig.**37),  which 
inhabits  the  central  and  southern  parts 
of  France,    is   four    or   five  lines   in 
length.    Its  face  is  white ;  its  forehead 
grey,  bordered  with  black ;  the  thorax 
of  a  yellowish  grey,  with  four  brown. 
Fig. 37.-vermiieode Geeri.         stripes   in    the    male;    the    abdomen 
light  yellow,  spotted  with  black  ;  and  the  wings  glassy. 

The  larva  of  the  Vermileo  has  a  thin  cylindrical  body,  capable 
of  bending  itself  in  every  direction ;  a  conical  head,  armed  with 
two  horny  points;  and  the  last  segment  elongated,  flat,  ele- 


Fig.  36. — Bombylius  major. 


DIPTEEA.  57 

vated,  and  terminated  by  four  hairy  tentacles ;  at  the  sides  of  the 
fifth  segment  may  be  observed  a  little  angle,  from  which  projects 
a  horny  retractile  point. 

It  is  of  very  singular  habits.  It  makes  a  small  tunnel  in 
the  sand,  having  a  conical  mouth,  where  it  waits,  like  the 
spider,  immovable.  As  soon  as  an  insect  falls  into  the  hole,  it 
raises  its  head,  and  squeezing  its  prey  in  the  folds  of  its  body, 
devours  it,  and  afterwards  throws  out  the  skin.  It  lives  in  this 
way  for  at  least  three  years  before  attaining  the  perfect  state. 

The  VolucellcR  (Fig.  38)  have  a  strong  resemblance  to 
the  humble  bee.  Certain  kinds  make  use  and  abuse  of  this 
resemblance  to  introduce  themselves  fraudulently  into  its  nests, 
and  to  deposit  their  eggs  therein.  When  these  eggs  have 
hatched,  the  larvae,  which  have  the  mouth  armed  with  two  man- 


Fig.  S8.— A  species  of  Volucella.  Fig.  i>9.— A  species  of  Helophilus. 

dibles,   devour  the  larvae  of  their  hosts,   the  bees.     This  is  the 
return  they  make  for  the  hospitality  they  have  received ! 

The  Helophili  (Fig.  39)  deserve  to  be  mentioned  here  on 
account  of  the  singular  form  of  many  of  their  larvae.  The  head 
is  thick,  fleshy,  and  varying  a  little  in  form.  But  the  point 
by  which  they  are  easily  to  be  distinguished  from  most  other 
larvae  is  that  they  have  always  very  long  tails,  sometimes,  indeed, 
out  of  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  body.  Eeaumur  called  these 
larvae  "vers  a  queue  de  rat;"  they  are  known  in  England  as 
rat-tailed  maggots,  and  their  habits  are  aquatic.  Having  placed 
some  of  them  in  a  basin  of  water,  Eeaumur  saw  that  they  kept 
in  a  perpendicular  position  at  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  and  parallel 
to  one  another,  the  extremities  of  their  tails  being  on  the  sur- 


58  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

face  of  the  water.  He  then  increased  the  depth  of  the  water 
by  degrees ;  and  as  it  got  deeper,  observed  that  the  tail  of  each 
worm  became  longer.  These  tails,  which  at  first  were  only  two 
inches  long,  at  last  attained  to  five. 


Fig.  40.— Larvae  of  a  Helophilus. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  the  body  of  each  worm  does  not  exceed 
five  lines  in  length.  The  tail  is  a  peculiar  organ,  by  the  aid  of 
which  the  worm  breathes,  although  its  body  may  be  covered  by 
water  to  the  depth  of  several  inches.  It  is  composed  of  two  tubes, 
one  of  which  shuts  into  the  other,  like  a  telescope.  Reaumur  calls 
it  the  breathing  tube.  It  terminates  in  a  little  brown  knob,  in 
which,  according  to  Reaumur,  are  two  holes  for  the  purpose  of 
receiving  the  air,  and  which  have  five  little  tufts  of  hair,  which  float 
on  the  surface  of  the  water.  When  the  time  comes  for  the  meta- 
morphosis of  these  worms,  they  come  out  of  the  water  and  bury 
themselves  in  the  earth ;  the  skin  then  hardens  and  becomes  a 
sort  of  cocoon.  In  this  cocoon  the  insect  loses  the  form  of  a 
worm,  and  takes  by  degrees  that  of  the  pupa,  which  it  keeps  until 
circumstances  cause  it  to  throw  off  its  last  coverings,  and  to  appear 
in  the  winged  state. 

What  an  eventful  life  !  what  a  life  full  of  changes  and  turns  of 
fortune  is  that  of  these  insects,  which  pass  the  first  and  longest 
period  of  their  existence  under  water,  another  part  of  their  life 


DIPTEEA.  59 

under  the  ground,  and,  finally,  after  having  existed  in  these  two 
elements,  enjoy,  high  in  the  air,  the  pleasures  of  flight! 

The  third  group  of  Brachycera  is  that  of  the  Dichaeta  ;  that  is, 
those  flies  having  two-fibred  suckers.  Among  these  are  classed 
the  (Estri,  the  Conopes,  and  the  flies  properly  so  called. 

The  genus  (Estrus,  the  Gad,  Bot-fly,  or  Breeze,  comprises  those 
formidable  insects  which  attack  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and  the  ox.* 
The  labours  of  Heaumur,  in  his  admirable  Memoirs,  and  those  of 
M.  Joly,  Professor  of  Zoology  to  the  Faculte  des  Sciences  de 
Toulouse,  who  published  some  most  valuable  researches  on  this 
subject,  in  1846,  will  guide  us  in  the  following  brief  explanation. 

The  following  is  the  description  given  by  M.  Joly  of  the  Gad- 


rig.  41. — Horsefly,  male  ( (Estrus  (yastrus)  equi).    Fig.  42.  —Horsefly,  female  ( (Estrus  (gastrus)  equi). 

fly   ((Estrus  equi),  represented  in  Figs.  41,  42,   which  is  taken 
from  a  drawing  which  accompanies  that  naturalist's  memoirs. 

The  head  of  this  insect  is  large  and  obtuse  ;  the  face  light 
yellow,  with  whitish  silky  fur ;  the  eyes  blackish ;  the  antennae 
ferruginous ;  the  thorax  grey ;  and  the  abdomen  of  a  reddish 
yellow,  with  black  spots.  The  wings  are  whitish,  not  diaphanous, 
with  a  golden  tint,  and  divided  by  a  winding  band  of  blackish 
colour.  The  feet  are  palish  yellow. 

This  species  is  found  in  France,  in  Italy,  and  also  in  the  East, 
especially  in  Persia,  and  rarely  in  this  country.  During  the  months 
of  July  and  August,  the  (Estrus  frequents  pastures,  and  de- 
posits its  eggs  chiefly  on  the  shoulders  and  knees  of  horses.  In 
order  to  do  this,  the  female  suspends  herself  in  the  air  for  some 
seconds  over  the  place  she  has  chosen,  falls  upon  it,  and  with* 
her  abdomen  bent,  sticks  her  eggs  to  the  horse's  hairs  by  means 

*  Mr.  Bates,  in  his  interesting  "  Naturalist  on  the  Amazons,"  mentions  an  (Estrus 
as  occurring  in  those  regions,  which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  human  flesh,  the  larva 
causing  a  swelling  which  resembles  a  boil. — Er>. 


60  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

of  a  glutinous  liquid  with  which  they  are  provided,  and  which 
soon  dries.  This  is  repeated  at  very  short  intervals.  It  often 
happens  that  from  four  to  five  hundred  eggs  are  thus  deposited 
upon  the  same  horse.  Guided  by  a  marvellous  instinct,  the 
female  (Estrus  generally  places  her  eggs  on  those  parts  of  the 
horse's  body  which  can  be  most  easily  touched  with  the  tongue, 
that  is,  at  the  inner  part  of  the  knees,  on  the  shoulders,  and  rarely, 
on  the  outer  part  of  the  mane. 

Horses  are  much  afraid  of  the  attacks  of  these  insects.  Their 
skin  contracts  where  the  (Estrus  deposits  its  eggs,  and  the  effects 
of  the  bite  soon  become  serious. 

The  eggs  of  the  (Estrus,  which  are  white  and  of  conical  form, 
adhere  to  the  horse's  hair  as  shown  in  Fig.  43.  They  are 
furnished  with  a  lid,  which  at  the  time  of  hatching  opens,  to 
allow  the  exit  of  the  young  larva,  which  takes  place,  according 


Fig.  43. — Eggs  of  the  Gad-fly  ((Estrus  (gastrus)  equi]  deposited  ou  tlie  liairs  of  a,  horse. 

to  M.  Joly,  about  twenty  days  after  they  are  deposited.  In  fact 
it  is  not  in  the  egg  state,  but  really  in  that  of  the  larva,  that 
the  horse,  as  we  shall  explain,  takes  into  his  stomach  these 
parasitical  guests  to  which  nature  has  allotted  so  singular  an  abode. 
When  licking  itself,  the  horse  carries  them  into  its  mouth,  and 
afterwards  swallows  them  with  its  food,  by  which  means  they 
enter  the  stomach.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  it  is  sometimes  other 
insects,  as  the  Tabani  for  instance,  that  by  their  repeated  stinging 
cause  the  horse  to  lick  himself,  and  to  thus  receive  his  most  cruel 
enemy.  In  the  perilous  journey  they  have  to  perform  from  the 
skin  of  the  horse  to  his  stomach,  many  of  the  larvae  of  the  (Estrus, 
as  may  be  supposed,  are  destroyed,  ground  by  the  teeth  of  the 
animal  or  crushed  by  the  alimentary  substances.  There  is  hardly 
one  (Estrus  in  fifty  that  arrives  safely  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse, 
and  yet  if  one  were  to  open  a  horse  attacked  by  (Estri,  the  stomach 
would  be  nearly  always  found  to  be  literally  full  of  these  larvse. 


DIPTEBA. 


61 


Fig.  44,  taken  from  a  drawing  which  accompanies  M.  Joly's 
memoirs,  represents  the  state  of  a  horse's  stomach  attacked  by 
the  Gad-fly. 

The  larvae  are  of  a  reddish  yellow,  and  each  of  their  segments 
is  armed  at  the  posterior  edge  with  a  double  row  of  triangular 
spines,  large  and  small  alternately,  yellow  at  the  base,  and  black 
at  the  point,  which  is  always  turned  backwards.  The  head  is 
furnished  with  two  hooks,  which  serve  to  fasten  the  larva 
to  the  interior  coats 
of  the  stomach.  The 
spines  with  which  the 
whole  surface  of  the 
body  is  furnished  con- 
tribute to  fix  it  more 
solidly,  preventing  the 
creatures,  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  are 
placed,  from  being 
carried  away  by  the 
food  which  has  gone 
through  the  first  pro- 
cess of  digestion. 

It  is  probable  that  this  larva,  so  singularly  deposited,  is 
nourished  by  the  mucus  secreted  by  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach,  and  that  it  breathes  the  air  which  the  horse  swallows 
with  its  food  during  the  process  of  deglutition. 

It  must  be  acknowledged,  however,  that  it  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
gaseous  atmosphere  which  is  very  unhealthy,  for  nearly  all  the 
gases  generated  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse  are  fatal  to  man  and 
to  the  generality  of  animals,  as  they  consist  of  azotic,  carbonic, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  hydro- carbonic  acids.  To  explain 
how  the  insect  can  live  under  such  circumstances,  M.  Joly  has 
suggested  the  following  ingenious  hypothesis  : — 

"When  the  stomach  which  the  larva  inhabits,"  says  this 
learned  naturalist,  "  contains  only  oxygen  or  air  that  is  nearly 
pure,  the  insect  opens  the  two  lips  of  the  cavity  which  contains 
the  spiracles,  and  breathes  at  its  ease.  When  the  digestion  of  the 
alimentary  substance  generates  gas  which  is  unfit  for  respiration, 


Fig.  44. — Portion  of  the  stomach  of  a  Horse,  and  larvse  of 
(Estrus  (gastrus)  equi. 


62  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

or  when  the  spiracles  run  the  risk  of  being  obstructed  by  the 
solid  or  liquid  substances  contained  in  the  stomach,  it  shuts  the 
lips,  and  continues  to  live  on  the  air  contained  in  its  numerous 
tracheae. 

"  Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  this  explanation/'  adds  M. 
Joly,  "it  is  nevertheless  very  curious  to  see  an  insect  pass  the 
greater  part  of  its  life  in  an  atmosphere  which  would  be  instantly 
fatal  to  most  animals,  and  in  an  organ  where,  under  the  govern- 
ment of  life,  chemical  processes  bring  about  the  most  wonderful 
changes  of  the  food  into  the  substance  of  the  animal  itself.  But 
how  can  the  insect  itself  resist  the  action  of  these  mysterious 
powers,  and  remain  alone  intact  in  the  midst  of  all  these  matters 
which  are  unceasingly  changing  and  decomposing  ?  This  is 
another  question  which  it  is  difficult,  or  rather  impossible,  to 
explain  in  the  present  state  of  science,  another  enigma  which 
humbles  our  pride,  and  of  which  He  who  has  created  both  man 
and  the  worm  alone  knows  the  secret." 

Arrived  at  a  state  of  complete  development,  the  larva  of  the 
(Estrus  imprisoned  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse  leaves  the  mem- 
brane to  which  it  has  been  fixed,  then  directing  the  anterior  part  of 
its  body  towards  the  pyloric  opening  of  the  stomach,  allows  itself 
to  be  carried  away  with  the  excrementitious  matter.  It  traverses, 
mixed  with  the  excrementary  bolus,  the  whole  length  of  the 
intestine  channel,  leaves  it  by  the  anal  orifice,  and  on  touching 
the  ground  at  once  seeks  a  suitable  place  to  go  through  the  last 
but  one  of  its  metamorphoses. 

The  skin  then  gets  thick,  hardens,  and  becomes  black  inside. 
All  the  organs  of  the  animal  are  composed  of  a  whitish  amorphous 
pulp,  which  soon  assumes  its  destined  form,  and  the  insect  becomes 
perfect.  It  then  lifts  a  lid  at  the  anterior  part  of  its  cocoon, 
emerges,  dries  its  wings,  and  flies  off. 

The  Bot-fly  ((Estrus  bovis,  Fig.  45)  has  a  very  hairy  body, 
large  head,  the  face  and  forehead  covered  with  light  yellow  hair, 
the  eyes  brown,  and  the  antennae  black.  The  thorax  is  yellow, 
barred  with  black  ;  the  abdomen  of  a  greyish  white  at  the  base, 
covered  with  black  hair  on  the  third  segment,  and  the  remainder 
of  an  orange  yellow  ;  the  wings  are  smoky  brown. 

As  soon  as  the  cattle  are  attacked,  they  may  be  seen,  their 


i 


DIPTEEA.  63 

heads  and  necks  extended,  their  tails  trembling,  and  held  in 
a  line  with  the  body,  to  rush  to  the  nearest  river  or  pond,  while 
such  as  are  not  attacked  disperse.  It  is  asserted  that  the  buzzing 
alone  of  the  CEstrus  terrifies  a  bullock  to  such  an  extent  as  to 


Fig.  45.— Bot-fly  (Oestrus  bmis). 

render  it  unmanageable.  As  for  the  insect,  it  simply  obeys  its 
maternal  instinct,  which  commands  it  to  deposit  its  eggs  under  the 
skin  of  our  large  ruminants. 

Let  us  now  explain  how  the  eggs  of  the  CEstrus  deposited  in 
the  skin  of  the  bullock  accommodate  themselves  to  this  strange 
abode.  The  mother  insect  makes  a  certain  number  of  little 
wounds  in  the  skin  of  the  beast,  each  of  which  receives  an  egg, 
which  the  heat  of  the  animal  serves  to  bring  forth.  It  is  a 
natural  parallel  to  the  artificial  way  which  the  ancient  Egyptians 
invented  of  hatching  the  eggs  of  domestic  fowls,  and  which  has 
been  imitated  badly  enough  in  our  day. 

Directly  the  larva  of  the  Bot-fly  is  out  of  the  egg  and  lodged 
between  the  skin  and  the  flesh  of  its  host,  the  bullock,  it  finds 
itself  in  a  place  perfectly  suitable  to  its  existence.  In  this  happy 
condition  the  larva  increases  in  growth,  and  eventually  becomes  a 
fly  in  its  turn.  Those  parts  of  the  animal's  body  in  which  the 
larvae  are  lodged  are  easily  to  be  recognised,  as  above  each  larva 


04 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


may  be  seen  an  elevation,  a  sort  of  tumour,  a  bump,  as  Keaumur 
calls  it,  comparing  it  more  or  less  justly  to  the  bump  caused 
on  a  man's  head  by  a  severe  blow. 

Fig.  46,  taken  from  a  drawing  in  Reaumur's  memoirs,  represents 
the  bumps  of  which  we  speak. 

The  country  people  are  well  aware  of  the  nature  and  cause  of 
these  bumps.  They  know  that  each  one  contains  a  worm,  that 


Fig.  46.— Bumps  produced  on  cattle  by  the  larvae  of  the  Bot-rty. 

this  worm  comes  from  a  fly,  and  that  later  it  will  be  transformed 
into  a  fly  itself.  Each  of  these  bumps  has  in  its  interior  a  cavity, 
occupied  by  the  larva,  which,  as  well  as  the  bump,  increases  in 
size  as  the  larva  becomes  developed. 

It  is  generally  on  young  cows  or  young  bullocks — in  fact,  on 
cattle  of  from  two  to  three  years  of  age — that  these  tumours  exist, 
and  they  are  rarely  to  be  seen  on  old  animals.  The  fly,  which  by 
piercing  the  skin  occasions  these  tumours,  always  chooses  those 
whose  skin  offers  little  resistance.  Each  tumour  is  provided  with 
a  small  opening  by  which  the  larva  breathes. 


DIPTEBA.  65 

In  order  to  examine  the  interior  cavity,  Reaumur  opened  some 
of  these  tumors,  either  with  a  razor  or  a  pair  of  scissors.  He 
found  it  in  a  most  disgusting  state.  The  larva  is  lodged  in  a 
regular  festering  wound,  matter  occupying  the  bottom  of  the 
cavity,  and  the  head  of  the  worm  is  continually,  or  almost  con- 
tinually, plunged  in  this  liquid.  "  It  is  most  likely  very  well  off 
there,"  says  Reaumur,  and  he  adds  that  this  matter  appears  to  be 
the  sole  food  of  the  larva. 

"  The  position  of  a  horned  beast,"  observes  the  great  naturalist, 
"  which  has  thirty  or  forty  of  these  bumps  on  its  back,  would  be  a 
very  cruel  one,  and  a  terrible  state  of  suffering  if  his  flesh  were 
continually  mangled  by  thirty  or  forty  large  worms.  But  it  is 
probable  they  cause  no  suffering,  or  at  least  very  little,  to  the 
large  animal."  "  Besides,"  continues  Reaumur,  "  those  cattle  whose 
bodies  are  the  most  covered  with  bumps,  not  only  show  no  signs 
of  pain,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  they  are  prejudicial  to  them 
in  any  way." 

Reaumur  tried  to  discover  how  the  larva,  when  arrived  at  its 
full  growth,  succeeds  in  leaving  its  abode,  as  the  opening  is 
smaller  than  its  own  body. 

"  Nature,"  says  Reaumur,  "  has  taught  this  worm  the  surest, 
the  gentlest,  and  the  most  simple  of  methods,  the  one  to  which 
surgeons  often  have  recourse  to  hold  wounds  open,  or  to  enlarge 
them.  They  press  tents  into  a  wound  they  wish  to  enlarge. 
Two  or  three  days  before  the  worm  wishes  to  come  out,  it  com- 
mences to  make  use  of  its  posterior  part  as  a  tent,,  to  increase 
the  size  of  the  exit  from  its  habitation.  It  thrusts  it  into  the 
hole  and  draws  it  out  again  many  times  in  the  course  of  two  or 
three  days,  and  the  oftener  this  is  repeated,  the  longer  it  is  able  to 
retain  its  posterior  end  in  the  opening,  as  the  hole  becomes  larger. 
On  the  day  preceding  that  on  which  the  worm  is  to  come  out, 
the  posterior  part  is  to  be  found  almost  continually  in  the  hole. 
At  last,  it  comes  out  backwards  and  falls  to  the  ground,  when  it 
gets  under  a  stone,  or  buries  itself  in  the  turf;  remaining  quiet 
and  preparing  for  its  last  transformation.  Its  skin  hardens, 
the  rings  disappear,  and  it  becomes  black.  Thenceforth  the 
insect  is  detached  from  the  outer  skin,  which  forms  a  cocoon  or 
box.  At  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the  cocoon  is  a  triangular 


66 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


Tiff.  47. — Imago  of 
Bot-fly  emergirg. 


piece,  which  the  fly  gets  rid  of  when  it  is  in  a  fit  state  to  come 
into  the  open  air." 

Fig.  47,  taken  from  drawings  in  Reaumur's 
memoirs,  represents  the  imago  of  the  CEstrus  leav- 
ing the  cocoon. 

The  reader  is,  most  likely,  desirous  to  know 
with  the  aid  of  what  instrument  the  CEstrus  is 
able  to  pierce  the  thick  skin  of  the  ox. 

The  female  only  is  possessed  of  this  instru- 
ment, which  is  situated  in  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  body.  It  is  of  a  shiny  blackish 
brown  colour,  and  as  it  were  covered  with  scales. 
By  pressing  the  abdomen  of  the  fly  between 
one's  two  fingers  it  is  thrust  out.  Reaumur 
observed  that  it  was  formed  of  four  tubes,  which 
could  be  drawn  the  one  into  the  other,  like  the  tubes  of  a  telescope 
(Fig.  48) .  The  last  of  these  appears  to  terminate  in  five  small 
scaly  knobs,  which  are  not  placed  on  the  same  line, 
but  are  the  ends  of  five  different  parts.  Three  of 
these  knobs  are  furnished  with  points,  which  form  an 
instrument  well  fitted  to  operate  upon  a  hard  thick 
skin.  United  together,  they  form  a  cavity  similar 
to  that  of  an  auger,  and  terminating  in  the  form 
of  a  spoon. 

The  gad-fly  or  breeze-fly  of  the  sheep  (Cephalcemia 
(CEstrus)  ovis)  has  obtained  notoriety  on  account  of  its 
attacking  those  animals. 

Even  at  the  sight  of  this  insect  the  sheep  feels  the 
£rea*es^  terror.  As  soon  as  one  of  them  appears,  the 
flock  becomes  disturbed,  the  sheep  that  is  attacked 
shakes  its  head  when  it  feels  the  fly  on  its  nostril,  and  at  the 
same  time  strikes  the  ground  violently  with  its  fore-feet ;  it  then 
commences  to  run  here  and  there,  holding  its  nose  near  the  ground, 
smelling  the  grass,  and  looking  about  anxiously  to  see  if  it  is  still 
pursued. 

It  is  to  avoid  the  attacks  of  the  Cephal&mia  that  during  the 
hot  days  of  summer  sheep  lie  down  with  their  nostrils  buried  in 
dusty  ruts,  or  stand  up  with  their  heads  lowered  between  their 


m 


DIPTEEA.  67 

fore-legs,  and  their  noses  nearly  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
When  these  poor  beasts  are  in  the  open  country,  they  are  observed 
assembled  with  their  nostrils  against  each  other  and  very  near 
the  ground,  so  that  those  which  occupy  the  outside  are  alone 
exposed.  The  Cephalcemia  ovis  (Fig.  49)  has  a  less  hairy  head, 


;• 


Fig.  49.— Cephalsomia  ovis. 

but  larger  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  its  body,  than  the  Gad-fly 
(CEstrus  equi).  Its  face  is  reddish,  its  forehead  brown  with  pur- 
ple bars,  its  eyes  of  a  dark  and  changing  green,  its  antennae  black, 
its  thorax  sometimes  grey,  sometimes  brown,  bristling  with  small 
black  tubercles,  the  abdomen  white,  spotted  with  brown  or  black, 
and  the  wings  hyaline. 

The  Cephalcemia  ((Estrus)  ovis  is  to  be  found  in  Europe,  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  in  the  East  Indies.  It  lays  its  eggs  on  the  edges  of 
the  animal's  nostrils,  and  the  larva  lives  in  the  frontal  and  maxil- 
lary sinuses.  It  is  a  whitish  worm,  having  a  black  transverse 
band  on  each  of  its  segments.  Its  head  is  armed  with  two  horny 
black  hooks,  parallel,  and  capable  of  being  moved  up  and  down 
and  laterally.  Underneath,  each  segment  of  the  body  has  several 
rows  of  tubercles  of  nearly  spherical  form,  surmounted  by  small 
bristles  having  reddish  points,  and  all  of  them  bent  backwards. 
"  These  points,"  says  M.  Joly,  "  probably  serve  to  facilitate  the 

F  2 


68  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

progress  of  the  animal  on  the  smooth  and  slippery  surfaces  of 
the  mucous  membranes  to  which  it  fixes  itself  to  feed,  and 
perhaps  also  to  increase  the  secretion  of  these  membranes  by 
the  irritation  occasioned  by  the  bristles  with  which  they  are  fur- 
nished." * 

Fixed  by  means  of  these  hooks  to  the  mucous  membrane 
which  it  perforates,  the  larva  nourishes  itself  with  mucus,  and 
lives  in  this  state,  according  to  M.  Joly,  during  nearly  a  whole 
year.  At  the  end  of  this  time  it  comes  out,  following  the  same 
course  by  which  it  entered,  falls  to  the  ground,  and  burying 
itself  to  the  depth  of  a  few  inches,  is  transformed  into  a  pupa. 
The  cocoon  is  of  a  fine  black  colour.  Thirty  or  forty  days  after 
its  burial  it  emerges  in  the  perfect  state,  and  detaching  the  lid  at 
the  anterior  end  of  the  cocoon  by  the  aid  of  its  head,  which  has 
increased  considerably  in  size,  takes  flight. 

Notwithstanding  the  formidable  appearance  of  their  trunks,  the 

habits  of  the  perfect  Conopes  (Fig. 
50)  are  very  quiet.  In  the  adult 
state,  they  are  only  to  be  seen  on 
flowers,  of  which  they  suck  the 
honeyed  juice.  But  with  their 
larvae  the  case  is  otherwise.  These 
latter  live  as  parasites  on  the 
drones.  Latreille  saw  the  Conops 
rufipes  issue  in  the  perfect  state 

Fig.  50. -Conops.  J  J  r 

from  the  body  of  a  drone,  through 
the  intervals  of  the  segments  of  the  abdomen. 

The  Muscides  form  that  great  tribe  of  Diptera  commonly  known 
as  flies,  and  which  are  distributed  in  such  abundance  over  the 
whole  world.  Faithful  companions  of  plants,  the  flies  follow  them 
to  the  utmost  limits  of  vegetation.  At  the  same  time  they  are 
called  upon  by  nature  to  hasten  the  dissolution  of  the  dead  bodies. 
In  the  carcasses  of  animals  they  place  their  eggs,  and  the  larva) 
prey  upon  the  corrupt  flesh,  thus  quickly  ridding  the  earth  of 
these  fatal  causes  of  infection  to  its  inhabitants.  The  organs  of 

*  "  Recherches  sur  les  CEstrides  en  general,  et  particulierement  sur  les  CEstres  qui 
attaquent  1'homme,  le  cheval,  le  bceuf,  et  le  mouton."  Par  N.  Joly,  Professeur  a  la 
Faculte  des  Sciences  de  Toulouse.  Lyons,  1846.  P.  63. 


DIPTEEA. 


these  insects  are  also  infinitely  modified  in  order  to  adapt  them  to 
their  various  functions. 

M.  Macquart  divides  the  Musddes  into  three  sections  :  the 
Creophili,  the  Anthomyzides,  and  the  Acalyptera. 

The  Creophili  have  the  strongest  organisation  ;  their  movements 
and  their  flight  are  rapid.  The  greater  part  feed  on  the  juices 
of  flowers,  some  on  the  blood 
or  the  humours  of  animals. 
Some  deposit  their  eggs  on 
different  kinds  of  insects, 
others  on  bodies  in  a  state  of 
decomposition,  some  again  are 
viviparous.  The  insects  of  the 
genus  Echinomyia,  for  instance 
(Fig.  51),  derive  their  nourish- 
ment from  flowers.  They  de- 
posit their  eggs  on  caterpillars, 
and  the  young  larvae  on  hatch- 
ing penetrate  their  bodies  and 
feed  on  their  viscera.  How 
surprised,  sometimes,  is  the 
naturalist,  who,  after  carefully 
preserving  a  chrysalis,  and 
awaiting  day  by  day  the 
appearance  of  the  beautiful 
butterfly  of  which  it  is  the 
coarse  and  mysterious  enve- 
lope, sees  a  cloud  of  flies 
emerge  in  place  of  it ! 

But  there  is  another  singular  manoeuvre  performed  by  some  of 
the  species  of  the  Diptera,  with  which  we  are  at  present  occupied, 
to  prepare  an  abundant  supply  of  provision  for  their  larvae  as  soon 
as  they  are  hatched.  The  following  are  the  means  they  employ. 

It  is  well  known  that  certain  digging  insects,  such  as  bees, 
weevils,  flies,  &c.,  carry  their  prey,  other  insects  which  they 
have  caught,  and  which  they  intend  should  serve  as  food 
for  their  own  larvae,  into  their  subterranean  abodes.  These  Diptera 
spying  a  favourable  moment,  slip  furtively  into  their  retreats,  and 


Fig.  51. — Ecliinomyia  grossa. 


70  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

deposit  their  eggs  on  the  very  food  which  was  intended  for  others. 
Their  larvae,  which  are  soon  hatched,  make  great  havoc  among 
the  provisions  gathered  together  in  the  cave,  and  cause  the  legiti- 
mate proprietors  to  die  of  starvation. 

"This  instinct/'  says  M.  Macquart,  "is  accompanied  by  the 
greatest  agility,  obstinacy,  and  audacity,  which  are  necessary  to 
carry  on  this  brigandage  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  Hymentop- 
tera,  seized  with  fear,  or  stupefied,  offer  no  resistance  to  their 
enemies,  and  although  they  carry  on  a  continual  war  against  dif- 
ferent insects,  and  particularly  against  different  Muscides,  they 
never  seize  those  of  whom  they  have  so  much  to  complain,  and 
which,  nevertheless,  have  no  arms  to  oppose  them  with." 

The  Sarcophaga  are  a  very  common  family  of  Diptera,  and  are 
chiefly  to  be  found  on  flowers,  from  which  they  steal  the  juice. 
The  females  do  not  lay  eggs,  but  are  viviparous. 

Beaumur,  with  his  usual  care,  observed  this  remarkable  instance 
of  viviparism  proved  in  a  fly,  which  seeks  those  parts  of  our  houses 
where  meat  is  kept  to  deposit  its  larvae.  This  fly  is  grey,  its 
legs  are  black,  and  its  eyes  red. 

When  one  of  them  is  taken  and  held  between  the  fingers,  there 
may  often  be  seen  a  small,  oblong,  whitish,  cylindrical  worm 
come  out  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  and  shake  itself  in  order 
to  disengage  itself  thoroughly.  It  has  no  sooner  freed  itself  than 
the  head  of  another  begins  to  show.  Thirty  or  forty  sometimes 
come  out  in  this  manner,  and,  on  pressing  the  abdomen  of  the  fly 
slightly,  more  than  eighty  of  these  larvae  may  sometimes  be  made  to 
come  out  in  a  short  space  of  time.  If  a  piece  of  meat  be  put  near 
these  worms,  they  quickly  get  into  it,  and  eat  greedily.  They 
grow  rapidly,  attaining  their  full  size  in  a  few  days,  and  make  a 
cocoon  of  their  skin,  from  which  in  a  certain  time  the  imago 
issues.  If  the  body  of  one  of  these  ovoviviparous  flies  (for  the 
eggs  hatch  within  the  parent)  be  opened,  a  sort  of  thick  ribbon  of 
spiral  form  is  soon  seen.  This  ribbon  appears  at  first  sight  to  be 
nothing  but  an  assemblage  of  worms,  placed  alongside  of  and 
parallel  to  one  another. 

Each  worm  has  a  thin  white  membraneous  envelope,  similar  to 
those  light  spiders'  webs  which  flutter  about  in  autumn,  and 
which  the  French  calljils  de  la  merge. 


DIPTERA. 


71 


The  fecundity  of  this  fly  is  very  great,  for  in  the  length  of  a 
quarter  of  an  inch,  the  envelope  in  which  these  small  worms  are 
enclosed  contains  2,000  of  them.  Therefore  this  ribbon,  being  two 
inches  and  a  half  long,  contains  about  20,000  worms. 

The  genus  Stomoxys,  though  nearly  related  to  the  house-fly, 
differs  from  it  very  much  in  habits.  They  live  on  the  blood  of 
animals.  The  Stomoxys  calcitrans  is  very  common  in  these  cli- 
mates. Its  palpi  are  tawny  yellow,  antennae  black,  thorax  striped 
with  black,  abdomen  spotted  with  brown,  and  its  trunk  hard,  thin, 
and  long.  It  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  carcasses  of  large  animals. 

The  Golden  Fly,  Lucilia  Ccesar,  lays  its  eggs  on  cut-up  meat,  or 
on  dead  animals.  It  is  only  three  or  four  lines  in  length,  of  a  golden 
green,  with  the  palpi  ferruginous,  antennae  brown,  and  feet  black. 

A  species  of  this  genus,  the  Lucilia  hominivorax,  has  lately 
obtained  a  melancholy  notoriety.  We  are  indebted  to  M.  Charles 
Coquerel,  surgeon  in  the  French  imperial  navy,  for  the  most  exact 
information  concerning  this  dangerous  Dipteron,  and  the  revela- 
tion of  the  dangers  to  which  man  is  liable  in  certain  parts  of  the 
globe.  But  let  us  first 
describe  the  insect, 
which  is  very  pretty 
and  of  brilliant  colours. 

Fig.  52,  taken  from 
M.  Charles  Coquerel' s 
memoir,  represents  the 
larva  and  the  perfect 
insect,  as  well  as  the 
horny  mandibles  with 
which  the  larvae  is  pro- 
vided. It  is  rather  more  than  the  third  of  an  inch  in  length,  the  head 
is  large,  downy,  and  of  a  golden  yellow.  The  thorax  is  dark  blue 
and  very  brilliant,  with  reflections  of  purple,  as  is  also  the  abdomen. 
The  wings  are  transparent,  and  have  rather  the  appearance  of  being 
smoked  ;  their  margins  as  well  as  the  feet  are  black. 

This  beautiful  insect  is  an  assassin ;  M.  Coquerel  has  informed 
us  that  it  sometimes  occasions  the  death  of  those  wretched  con- 
victs whom  human  justice  has  transported  to  the  distant  peniten- 
tiary of  Cayenne. 


Fig.  52.— Lucilia  hommivorax. 


72  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

When  one  of  these  degraded  beings,  who  live  in  a  state  of  sordid 
filth,  goes  to  sleep,  a  prey  to  intoxication,  it  happens  sometimes 
that  this  fly  gets  into  his  mouth  and  nostrils.  It  lays  its  eggs 
there,  and  when  they  are  changed  into  larvae,  the  death  of  the 
victim  generally  follows.* 

These  larvae  are  of  an  opaque  white  colour,  a  little  over  half  an 
inch  in  length,  and  have  eleven  segments.  They  are  lodged 
in  the  interior  of  the  nasal  orifices  and  the  frontal  sinuses, 
and  their  mouths  are  armed  with  two  very  sharp  horny  mandibles. 
They  have  been  known  to  reach  the  ball  of  the  eye,  and  to  gan- 
grene the  eyelids.  They  enter  the  mouth,  corrode  and  devour  the 
gums  and  the  entrance  of  the  throat,  so  as  to  transform  those 
parts  into  a  mass  of  putrid  flesh,  a  heap  of  corruption. 

Let  us  turn  away  from  this  horrible  description,  and  observe 
that  this  hominivorous  fly  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  parasite  of 
man,  as  it  only  attacks  him  accidentally,  as  it  would  attack  any 
animal  that  was  in  a  daily  state  of  uncleanliness. 

In  many  works  on  medicine  may  be  found  mentioned  a  circum- 
stance, which  occurred  twenty  years  ago,  at  the  surgery  of  M.  J. 
Cloquet.  The  story  is  perhaps  not  very  agreeable,  but  is  so 
interesting  as  regards  the  subject  with  which  we  are  occupied, 
that  we  think  it  ought  to  be  repeated  here.  One  day  a  poor 
wretch,  half  dead,  was  brought  to  the  Hotel-Dieu.  He  was  a 
beggar,  who,  having  some  tainted  meat  in  his  wallet,  had  gone  to 
sleep  in  the  sun  under  a  tree.  He  must  have  slept  long,  as  the 
flies  had  time  enough  to  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  tainted  meat, 
and  the  larvae  time  enough  to  be  hatched,  and,  what  is  more,  to  de- 
vour the  beggar's  meat.  It  seems  that  the  larvae  enjoyed  the  repast, 
for  they  passed  from  the  dead  meat  to  the  living  flesh,  and  after 
devouring  the  meat  they  commenced  to  eat  the  owner.  Awoke  by 
the  pain,  the  beggar  was  taken  to  the  Hotel-Dieu,  where  he  expired. 
Who  would  suppose  that  one  of  the  causes  which  render  the 
centre  of  Africa  difficult  to  be  explored  is  a  fly,  not  larger  than 
the  house-fly  ?  The  Tsetse  fly  (Fig.  53)  is  of  brown  colour, 

% 

*  "  The  majority  of  convicts  attacked  by  the  Lucilia  hominivorax"  says  M.  F. 
Bouyer,  captain  of  the  frigate,  in  '  Un  Voyage  a  la  Guyane  Francaise,'  "  have  suc- 
cumbed despite  the  assistance  of  science.  Cures  have  been  the  exception  ;  in  a  dozen 
cases  three  or  four  are  reported." — Tour  du  Monde,  1866,  \er  Semestre,  p.  318. 


DIPTEEA.  73 

with  a  few  transverse  yellow  stripes  across  the  abdomen,  and 
with  wings  longer  than  its  body.  It  is  not  dangerous  to  man, 
to  any  wild  animals,  or  to  the  pig,  the  mule,  the  ass,  or  the  goat. 


Fig.  53. — The  Tsetse  fly  ( Glossina  morsitans. ) 

But  it  stings  mortally  the  ox,  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and  the  dog, 
and  renders  the  countries  of  Central  Africa  uninhabitable  for 
those  valuable  animals.  It  seems  to  possess  very  sharp  sight :  "  It 
darts  from  the  top  of  a  bush  as  quick  as  an  arrow  on  the  object  it 
wishes  to  attack,"  writes  a  traveller,  M.  de  Costelnau. 

M.  Chapmann,  one  of  the  travellers  who  have  advanced  the 
farthest  into  the  middle  of  Southern  Africa,  relates  that  he  covered 
his  body  with  the  greatest  care  to  avoid  the  bites  of  this  nimble 
enemy.  But  if  a  thorn  happened  to  make  a  nearly  imperceptible 
hole  in  his  clothing,  he  often  saw  the  Tsetse,  who  appeared  to 
know  that  it  could  not  penetrate  the  cloth,  dart  forward  and  sting 
him  on  the  uncovered  part.  This  sucker  of  blood  secretes  in  a 
gland,  placed  at  the  base  of  its  trunk,  so  subtle  a  poison  that  three 
or  four  flies  are  sufficient  to  kill  an  ox. 

The  Glossina  morsitans  abounds  on  the  banks  of  the  African 
river,  the  Zambesi,  frequenting  the  bushes  and  reeds  that  border 
it.  It  likes,  indeed,  all  aquatic  situations.  The  African  cattle 
recognise  at  great  distances  the  buzzing  of  this  sanguinary  enemy, 
and  this  fatal  sound  causes  them  to  feel  the  greatest  fear. 


74  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

Livingstone,  the  celebrated  traveller,  in  crossing  those  regions  of 
Africa  that  are  watered  by  the  Zambesi,  lost  forty- three  magnificent 
oxen  by  the  bites  of  the  Tsetse  fly,  and  had  been  very  little  bitten. 

"A  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  bite  of  the  Tsetse  is  its 
perfect  harmlessness  in  man  and  wild  animals,  and  even  calves 
so  long  as  they  continue  to  suck  the  cows.  We  never  experienced 
the  slightest  injury  from  them  ourselves,  personally,  although  we 
lived  two  months  in  their  habitat,  which  was  in  this  case  as  sharply 
defined  as  in  many  others,  for  the  south  bank  of  the  Chobe  was 
infested  by  them,  and  the  northern  bank,  where  our  cattle  were 
placed,  only  fifty  yards  distant,  contained  not  a  single  specimen. 
This  was  the  more  remarkable,  as  we  often  saw  natives  carrying 
over  raw  meat  to  the  opposite  bank  with  many  Tsetse  settled  on  it. 

"  The  poison  does  not  seem  to  be  injected  by  a  sting,  or  by  ova 
placed  beneath  the  skin,  for,  when  one  is  allowed  to  feed  freely  on 
the  hand,  it  is  seen  to  insert  the  middle  prong  of  three  portions, 
into  which  the  proboscis  divides,  somewhat  deeply,  into  the  true 
skin.  It  then  draws  it  out  a  little  way,  and  it  assumes  a  crimson 
colour,  as  the  mandibles- come  into  brisk  operation.  The  previously 
shrunken  belly  swells  out,  and,  if  left  undisturbed,  the  fly  quietly 
departs  when  it  is  full.  A  slight  itching  irritation  follows,  but 
not  more  than  in  the  bite  of  a  mosquito.  In  the  ox  this  same 
bite  produces  no  more  immediate  effects  than  in  man.  It  does  not 
startle  him  as  the  Gad-fly  does  ;  but  a  few  days  afterwards  the 
following  symptoms  supervene  :  the  eye  and  nose  begin  to  run, 
the  coat  stares  as  if  the  animal  were  cold,  a  swelling  appears  under 
the  jaw,  and  sometimes  at  the  navel;  and,  though  the  animal 
continues  to  graze,  emaciation  commences,  accompanied  with  a 
peculiar  flaccidity  of  the  muscles,  and  this  proceeds  unchecked 
until,  perhaps  months  afterwards,  purging  comes  on,  and  the 
animal,  no  longer  able  to  graze,  perishes  in  a  state  of  extreme 
exhaustion.  Those  which  are  in  good  condition  often  perish,  soon 
after  the  bite  is  inflicted,  with  staggering  and  blindness,  as  if  the 
brain  were  affected  by  it.  Sudden  changes  of  temperature  produced 
by  falls  of  rain  seem  to  hasten  the  progress  of  the  complaint ;  but 
in  general  the  emaciation  goes  on  uninterruptedly  for  months,  and, 
do  what  we  will,  the  poor  animals  perish  miserably. 

"  When  opened,  the  cellular  tissue  on  the  surface  of  the  body 


DIPTEEA.  75 

beneath  the  skin  is  seen  to  be  injected  with  air,  as  if  a  quantity 
of  soap  bubbles  were  scattered  over  it,  or  a  dishonest  awkward 
butcher  had  been  trying  to  make  it  look  fat.  The  fat  is  of  a 
greenish-yellow  colour,  and  of  an  oily  consistence.  All  the 
muscles  are  flabby,  and  the  heart  often  so  soft  that  the  fingers 
may  be  made  to  meet  through  it.  The  lungs  and  liver  partake 
of  the  disease.  The  stomach  and  bowels  are  pale  and  empty,  and 
the  gall-bladder  is  distended  with  bile.  These  symptoms  seem 
to  indicate,  what  is  probably  the  case,  a  poison  in  the  blood  ;  the 
germ  of  which  enters  when  the  proboscis  is  inserted  to  draw 
blood.  The  poison- germ  contained  in  a  bulb  at  the  root  of  the 
proboscis,  seems  capable,  although  very  minute  in  quantity,  of 
reproducing  itself.  The  blood  after  death  by  Tsetse  is  very  small 
in  quantity,  and  scarcely  stains  the  hands  in  dissection.  .  .  . 

"  The  mule,  ass,  and  goat  enjoy  the  same  immunity  from  the 
Tsetse  as  man  and  the  game.  Many  large  tribes  on  the  Zambesi 
can  keep  no  domestic  animals  except  the  goat,  in  consequence  of 
the  scourge  existing  in  their  country.  Our  children  were  fre- 
quently bitten,  yet  suffered  no  harm ;  and  we  saw  around  us 
numbers  of  zebras,  buffaloes,  pigs,  pallahs,  and  other  antelopes, 
feeding  quietly  in  the  very  habitat  of  the  Tsetse,  yet  as  undisturbed 
by  its  bite  as  oxen  are  when  they  first  receive  the  fatal  poison. 
There  is  not  so  much  difference  in  the  natures  of  the  horse  and 
zebra,  the  buffalo  and  ox,  the  sheep  and  the  antelope,  as  to  afford 
any  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  phenomenon.  Is  a  man  not 
as  much  a  domestic  animal  as  a  dog  ? 

"  The  curious  feature  in  the  case,  that  dogs  perish  though  fed  on 
milk,  whereas  the  calves  escape  so  long  as  they  continue  sucking, 
made  us  imagine  that  the  mischief  might  be  produced  by  some 
plant  in  the  locality,  and  not  by  Tsetse ;  but  Major  Yardon,  of  the 
Madras  army,  settled  that  point  by  riding  a  horse  up  to  a  small 
hill  infested  by  the  insect,  without  allowing  him  time  to  graze, 
and  though  he  only  remained  long  enough  to  take  a  view  of  the 
country  and  catch  some  specimens  of  Tsetse  on  the  animal,  in  ten 
days  afterwards  the  horse  was  dead."  * 

*  "  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa,  by  David  Livingstone, 
LL.D.,  D.C.L."  London,  John  Murray,  1857,  p.  81,  et  seq.  (The  extract  in  the 
original  of  this  work  is  from  a  French  translation  :  "Explorations  dans  1'Interieur 


76  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Zambesi  can,  therefore,  have  no  domestic 
animal  but  the  goat.  When  herds  of  cattle  driven  by  travellers 
or  dealers  are  obliged  to  cross  these  regions,  they  only  move  them 
during  the  bright  nights  of  the  cool  season,  and  are  careful  to 
smear  them  with  dung  mixed  with  milk ;  the  Tsetse  fly  having 
an  intense  antipathy  to  the  dung  of  animals,  besides  being  in  this 
season  rendered  dormant  by  the  lowness  of  the  temperature.  It 
is  only  by  such  precautions  that  they  are  able  to  get  through 
this  dangerous  stage  of  their  journey. 

The  large  blue  meat-fly,  the  familiar  representative  of  the 
genus  Callipkora,  is  known  to  all  by  its  brilliant  blue  and  white 
reflecting  abdomen.  This  fly,  which  is  common  everywhere,  is 
the  Calliphora  vomitoria  on  which  Reaumur  has  made  many 
beautiful  observations,  which  we  will  make  known  to  our 
readers. 

If  we  shut  up  a  blue  meat-fly  in  a  glass  vase,  as  Reaumur  did, 
and  place  near  the  insect  a  piece  of  fresh  meat,  before  half  a  day 
is  passed,  the  fly  will  have  deposited  its  eggs  thereon  one 
after  the  other,  in  irregular  heaps,  of  various  sizes.  The  whole  of 
these  heaps  consists  of  about  two  hundred  eggs,  which  are  of  an 
iridescent  white  colour,  and  four  or  five  times  as  long  as  they  are 
broad.  In  less  than  twenty-four  hours  after  the  egg  is  laid  the 
larva  is  hatched.  It  is  no  sooner  born  than  it  thinks  of  feeding, 
and  buries  itself  in  the  meat,  with  the  aid  of  the  hooks  and  lancets 
with  which  it  is  provided. 

These  worms  do  not  appear  to  discharge  any  solid  excrement, 
but  they  produce  a  sticky  liquid  which 
keeps  the  meat   in   a   moist  state  and 
hastens  its  putrefaction.     The  larvae  eat 
voraciously   and   always ;  so   much  so, 
that  in  four  or  five  days  they  arrive  at 
their  full  growth.     They  then  take  no 
Fig.  54.~Eggs  of  the  Meat-fly.       more  nourishment  until  they  are  trans- 
formed into  flies.     They  are  now  about 
to  assume  the  pupa  state.   In  this  condition  it  is  no  longer  neces- 

de  1'Afrique  australe,  et  voyages  a  travers  le  continent  Sainte-Paul  de  Loanda  a 
I'Embouchure  du  Zambeze,  de  1840  a  1846,  traduit  de  1'anglais."  In  8vo.  Paris, 
1859.  Pages  93— 95.— ED.) 


DIPTEEA.  77 

sary  for  them  to  remain  on  the  tainted  meat,  which  has  heen  alike 
their  cradle  and  their  larder,  and  where  until  now  they  were  so 
well  off.  They  therefore  leave  it  and  seek  a  retreat  under  ground. 
The  larva  then  assumes  a  globular  form  and  reddish  colour,  loses 
all  motion,  and  cannot  any  longer  either  lengthen  or  shorten,  or 
dilate  or  contract  itself.  Life  seems  to  have  left  it.  "  It  would  be 
considered  a  miracle/*  says  Reaumur,  "  if  we  were  told  there  was 
any  kind  of  quadruped  of  the  size  of  a  bear,  or  of  an  ox,  which  at 
a  certain  time  of  the  year,  the  beginning  of  winter  for  instance, 
disengages  itself  completely  from  its  skin,  of  which  it  makes  a  box 
of  an  oval  form  ;  that  it  shuts  itself  up  in  this  box ;  that  it  knows 
how  to  close  it  in  every  part,  and  besides  that  it  knows  how 
to  strengthen  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  preserve  itself  from  the 
effects  of  the  air  and  the  attacks  of  other  animals.  This  pro- 
digy is  presented  to  us,  on  a  small  scale,  in  the  metamorphosis 
of  our  larva.  It  casts  its  skin  to  make  itself  a  strong  and  well- 
closed  dwelling." 

If  one  opens  these  cocoons  only  twenty- four  hours  after  the 
metamorphoses  of  the  worms,  no  vestige  of  those  parts  appertaining 
to  a  pupa  is  to  be  found.  But  four  or  five  days  afterwards,  the 
cocoon  is  occupied  by  a  white  pupa,  provided  with  all  the  parts  of 
a  fly.  The  legs  and  wings,  although  enclosed  in  sheaths,  are  very 
distinct;  these  sheaths  being  so  thin  that  they  do  not  conceal 
them.  The  trunk  of  the  fly  rests  on  the  thorax  ;  one  can  discern 
its  lips  and  the  case  which  encloses  the  lancet.  The  head  is  large 
and  well  formed,  its  large,  compound  eyes  being  very  distinct. 
The  wings  appear  still  unformed,  because  they  are  folded,  and,  as 
it  were,  packed  up.  It  is  a  fly,  but  an  immovable  and  inanimate 
fly ;  it  is  like  a  mummy  enveloped  in  its  cloths. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  intended  this  mummy  should  awake,  and 
when  the  time  comes  it  will  be  strong  and  vigorous.  Indeed  it  has 
need  of  strength  and  vigour  to  accomplish  the  important  work  of 
its  life.  Although  its  coverings  are  thin,  it  is  a  considerable  work 
for  the  insect  to  emerge,  for  each  of  its  exterior  parts  is  enclosed 
in  them  as  in  a  case,  much  the  same  as  a  glove  fits  tightly  to  all 
the  fingers  of  the  hand.  But  that  for  which  the  most  strength  is 
necessary  is  the  operation  of  forming  the  opening  of  the  cocoon,  in 
which  as  a  mummy  it  is  so  tightly  enclosed. 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


The  fly  always  comes  out  at  the  same  end  of  the  cocoon,  that  is, 
at  the  end  where  its  head  is  placed,  and  also  where  the  head  of  the 
larva  previously  was.  This  end  is  composed  of  two  parts — of  two 
half  cups  placed  one  against  the  other.  These  can  be  detached 
from  each  other  and  from  the  rest  of  the  cocoon.  It  is  sufficient 
for  the  fly  that  one  be  detached,  and  in  order  to  effect  this,  it 
employs  a  most  astonishing  means.  It  expands  and  contracts  its 
head  alternately,  as  if  by  dilatation  ;  and  thus  pushes  the  two  half 
cups  away  from  the  end  of  the  cocoon.  These  are  not  long  able 
to  resist  the  battering  of  the  fly's  head,  and  the  insect  at  length 
comes  out  triumphant.  This  fly,  which  should  be  blue,  is  then 
grey;  it,  however,  comes  quickly  to  perfection,  at  the  end  of 
three  hours  attaining  its  definite  colour ;  and  in  a  very  short 
space  of  time  every  part  of  the  animal  becomes  of  that  firmness 
and  consistency  which  characterise  it.  At  the  same  time,  the 
wings,  which  at  the  moment  it  came  into  the  world  were  only 
stumps,  extend  and  unfold  themselves  by  degrees.  The  meat-fly 
is  represented  below  (Fig.  55). 

One  of  the   features  in  the  formation  of  this  fly  which  most 

attracted  the  attention  of 
Reaumur,  and  which  is  likely 
to  excite  the  curiosity  of  all 
those  who  take  an  interest  in 
insects,  is  the  composition  of 
its  trunk.  We  will  therefore, 
with  that  illustrious  observer, 
take  a  glimpse  at  the  remark- 
able and  complicated  appa- 
ratus by  the  aid  of  which  the 
fly  can  suck  up  liquids,  and  can  even  taste  solid  and  crystalline 
substances,  such  as  sugar. 

It  is  no  difficult  matter  to  make  a  fly  show  its  trunk, 
extended  to  its  full  extent.  One  has  only  to  press  between 
the  finger  and  thumb  either  the  two  sides  or  the  upper  and  under 
part  of  the  thorax.  It  is  thus  forced  at  once  to  put  out  its 
tongue. 

The  tongue  appears  to  be  composed  of  two  parts  joined  together, 


Fig.  55.— Blue-bottle  fly 
( CaUipkora  vomitoria)  magnified. 


DIPTEEA. 


79 


and  forming  a  more  or  less  obtuse  angle  (Fig.  56).  The  first  portion 
of  the  trunk,  that  which  joins  the  head,  is  perfectly  membraneous 
and  in  the  form  of  a  funnel.  We  will  call  it  the  conical  part  and 
show  it  separately  (Fig.  57).  The  second  portion  terminates  in  a 


Fig.  56.— Trunk  of  the  Meat-fly. 


Fig.  57.— Conical  part  of  the  trunk. 


Fig.  58.— •Ketractile  proboscis 
of  Blue-bottle  fly. 


thick  mass,  in  part  cartilaginous  or  scaly,  and  of  a  shiny  brown 
colour.  Above  the  conical  portion  are  two  oblong  antennae,  with- 
out joints,  of  chesnut  colour,  and  furnished  with  hairs. 

On  ceasing  to  press  the  thorax,  the  membraneous  conical  por- 
tion may  be  seen  to  draw  itself  back  within  its  sheath  (Fig.  58). 
The  second  portion  is  at  the  same  time 
drawn  into  the  cavity,  but  it  raises  itself 
by  forming  a  more  and  more  acute  angle, 
so  that  when  it  reaches  the  opening  of  the 
cell  its  length  is  equal  to  that  of  the  cell, 
which  is  quite  large  enough  to  receive 
the  second  portion.  The  thick  part  is 
lengthened  and  flattened  a  little,  and  conceals  the  trunk. 

Let  us  cause  the  trunk  to  extend  itself  a  second  time,  in  order 
to  observe  its  end  minutely.  Here  the  opening  is  placed,  which 
may  be  looked  upon  as  the  mouth  of  the  insect,  and  is  provided 
with  two  large  thick  lips  (Fig.  59).  These  lips  form  a  disk, 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  trunk  ;  the  disc  is  oval,  and  is 
divided  into  two  equal  and  similar  parts  by  a  slit.  The  lips 
have  each  a  considerable  number  of  parallel 
channels  situated  perpendicularly  to  the  slit. 
These  channels  are  formed  by  a  succession  of 
vessels  placed  near  each  other.  On  pressing 
the  trunk  we  see  that  these  vessels  are  distended 
by  a  liquid.  Eeaumur,  from  whom  we  borrow 
these  details,  discovered  a  few  of  the  uses  to  which  this  trunk 


Fig.  59. -Extremity  on  the 
proboscis  of  a  fly. 


80  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

is  applied.  He  covered  the  interior  of  a  transparent  glass 
vase  with  a  light  coat  of  thick  syrup.  He  then  put  in  some 
flies,  when  it  was  easy  to  see  some  of  them  proceed  to  fix 
themselves  to  the  sides  of  the  vase,  and  regale  themselves  on  the 
sugary  liquid,  of  which  they  are  very  fond.  He  observed  them 
carefully,  and  in  his  admirable  work  he  recommends  those  who 
are  curious  to  try  the  experiment,  with  which,  like  himself,  they 
will  certainly  be  satisfied. 

While  the  body  of  the  trunk  is  stationary,  its  end  is  much 
agitated.  It  may  be  seen  to  move  in  different  ways,  and  with  an 
astonishing  quickness ;  the  lips  acting  in  a  hundred  different 
ways,  and  always  with  great  rapidity.  The  small  diameter  of 
the  disc  which  they  form  lengthens  and  shortens  alternately ; 
the  angle  formed  by  the  two  lips  varies  every  instant ;  they  become 
successively  flat  and  convex,  either  entirely  or  partly.  All  these 
movements,  Eeaumur  remarks,  give  a  high  idea  of  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  part  which  performs  them. 

The  object  of  all  these  movements  is  to  draw  the  syrup  into  the 
interior  of  the  trunk.     If  we  observe  the  lips  (Fig.  60)    atten- 
tively, it  will  easily  be  seen  that  they  touch  each  other 
about  the  centre  of  the  disc  and  leave  two  openings, 
one -in  front,  the  other  at  the  back.     The  one  in  front, 
is,  one  may  say,  the  mouth  of  the  fly,  as  it  is  to  this 
eo  -Li  s  °Pening  ^na^  the  liquid  is  brought,  which  is  intended 
of  the  proboscis  f,0  "be  an(j  jg  goon  introduced  into  the  trunk.     With- 

of  a  fly. 

out  occupying  ourselves  for  the  present  with  the 
channel  through  which  it  rises,  we  may  first  ask,  whatever  that 
channel  may  be,  what  is  the  power  that  forces  the  liquid  into  it  ? 

It  is  nearly  certain  that  suction  is  the  principal  cause  of  the 
liquid  flowing  up  the  trunk.  It  would  thus  be  a  sort  of  pump, 
into  Which  the  liquid  is  forced  by  the  pressure  of  the  external  air. 
The  fly  exhausts  the  air  from  the  tube  of  its  trunk,  and  the  drop 
of  liquid  which  is  at  the  opening  penetrates  and  goes  up  this 
channel  through  the  influence  of  the  atmospheric  pressure.  To 
this  physical  phenomenon  must  be  added  the  numerous  and  multi- 
plied movements  which  take  place  in  the  trunk,  and  which  are 
intended  to  cause  sufficient  pressure  to  drive  the  liquor  which  is 
introduced  into  the  channel  upwards. 


DIPTEKA.  81 

Reaumur  wished  to  know  how  it  was  that  very  thick  syrups,  and 
even  solid  sugar,  can  be  sucked  up  by  the  soft  trunk  of  the  fly. 
What  he  saw  is  wonderful.  If  a  fly  meets  with  too  thick  a  syrup, 
it  can  render  it  sufficiently  liquid  ;  if  the  sugar  is  too  hard,  it  can 
break  it  into  small  portions.  In  fact,  there  exists  in  its  body  a  supply 
of  liquid,  of  which  it  discharges  a  drop  from  the  end  of  its  trunk 
at  will,  and  lets  this  fall  on  the  sugar  which  it  wishes  to  dis- 
solve, or  on  the  syrup  it  wishes  to  dilute.  A  fly,  when  held 
between  the  fingers,  often  shows,  at  the  end  of  its  trunk,  a  drop, 
very  fluid  and  transparent,  of  this  liquid.  "The  water  poured 
on  the  syrup,"  says  Reaumur,  "  would  not  always  insinuate  itself 
sufficiently  quick  into  every  part  of  it  ;  the  .movement  of  the 
fly's  lips  hastens  the  operation  ;  the  lips  turn  over,  work,  and 
knead  it,  so  that  the  water  can  quickly  penetrate  it,  in  the  same 
way  as  one  handles  and  kneads  with  one's  hands  a  hard  paste 
which  it  is  wished  to  soften,  by  causing  the  water  by  which  it 
is  covered  to  mix  with  it.  This,  again,  is  the  same  means  the 
fly  employs  with  sugar.  When  the  trunk  is  forced  to  act  upon 
a  grain  of  irregular  and  rugged  form  on  which  it  cannot  easily 
fasten,  its  end  distorts  itself  to  seize  and  hold  it.  It  is  some- 
times very  amusing  to  see  how  the  fly  turns  over  the  grain  of 
sugar  in  different  ways ;  it  appears  to  play  with  it  as  a  monkey 
would  with  an  apple.  It  is,  however,  only  that  it  may  hold  it 
well  in  order  to  moisten  it  more  successfully,  and  afterwards  to 
pump  up  the  water  which  has  partly  dissolved  it." 

Reaumur  often  observed  a  drop  of  water  at  the  end  of  the  trunks 
of  flies  which  were  perfectly  surfeited  with  food.  This  drop 
went  up  the  trunk,  then  descended  to  the  end,  and  that  many 
times  in  succession.  It  appeared  to  him  that  it  was  necessary  for 
these  insects,  as  for  many  quadrupeds,  to  chew  the  cud,  as  it  were ; 
that,  in  order  the  better  to  digest  the  liquid  they  had  passed  into 
their  stomachs,  they  were  obliged  to  bring  it  back  into  the  trunk 
that  it  might  return  again  better  prepared. 

In  order  to  assure  himself  directly  of  the  reality  of  his  supposi- 
tion, Reaumur  tested  the  water  which  a  fly,  that  he  says  "  had  got 
drunk  on  sugar,"  had  brought  back  to  the  end  of  its  trunk  ;  he 
found  this  to  be  sugar  and  water.  Also,  having  given  a  fly  currant- 
jelly,  he  -observed,  after  it  had  sufficiently  gorged  itself,  several 

G 


82  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

drops  of  red  liquid  in  its  trunk,  and  having  tasted  it,  found  it 
had  the  flavour  which,  from  its  appearance,  he  guessed  it  would 
have. 

The  illustrious  observer  who  had  already  made  all  these  dis- 
coveries on  the  formation  and  functions  of  the  trunk  of  insects, 
often  reflected  on  the  fact  that  the  liquors  of  which  flies  are  most 
fond  are  enclosed  under  the  skin  of  certain  fruits,  such  as  pears, 
plums,  grapes,  &c.,  or  even  under  the  skin  of  some  animals  oi 
which  they  suck  the  blood.  In  order  that  the  trunk  of  a  fly 
may  act  under  such  circumstances,  it  is  necessary  for  it  to  pierce 
and  open  the  skin.  If  this  is  the  case,  flies  ought  to  be  pos- 
sessed of  a  lancet. '  He  looked  a  long  time  for  this  lancet,  and  at 
last  found  it.  It  is  situated  at  the  top  of  the  part  of  the  trunk 
which  is  terminated  by  the  lips,  and  is  placed  in  a  fleshy  groove, 
and  enclosed  in  a  case.  It  has  a  very  fine  point,  and  is  of  light 
colour  (Fig.  61).  The  point  is  situated  in  the  opening  which 

is  to  be  seen  between  the  lips  of  the 
trunk,  at  its  anterior  end,  through 
which  the  streams  of  liquid  pass,  on 
which  the  lips  operate.  That  is  the 
only  opening  of  the  lips ;  and  the 
sucker  which  takes  up  the  liquid  is  the 
same  part  which  we  just  now  called  the  case  of  the  lancet. 

When  once  with  Heaumur,  one  would  never  wish  to  leave  him. 
However,  we  will  stay  these  details,  to  continue  our  review  of  the 
principal  kinds  of  Diptera. 

The  genus  Musca  (fly)  in  which  Linna3us  comprised  the  immense 
series  of  Diptera,  with  the  exception  of  the  Tipulidtf,  the  Tabanidce, 
the  Asilici,  the  Bombyliarii,  and  the  Empidice,  is  now  reduced 
to  the  house  fly,  and  a  few  resembling  it.  The  habits  of  these 
companions  in  our  dwellings  are  in  conformity  with  the  two  great 
principles  of  animal  life,  that  is,  eating,  and  propagating  their 
species. 

Flies  feed  principally  on  fluids  which  exude  from  the  bodies 
of  animals,  that  is,  sweat,  saliva,  and  other  secretions.  They  also 
seek  vegetable  juices ;  and  they  may  be  seen  in  our  houses  to  feed 
eagerly  on  fruits  and  sweet  substances. 

The  common  flies  deposit  their  eggs  on  vegetables,  and  par- 


DIPTERA.  83 

ticularly  on  mushrooms  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  on  dung- 
heaps,  cow  dung,  &c.  They  are  essentially  parasites,  settling  on 
both  man  and  beast,  to  suck  up  the  fluid  substances  which  are 
diffused  over  the  surface  of  their  bodies.  In  our  dwellings  they 
eat  anything  that  will  serve  to  nourish  them.  Generation  succeeds 
generation  with  the  greatest  rapidity. 

The  House  Fly  (Musca  domestica,  Fig.  62),  is  about  three  lines 
in  length,  ash  coloured,  with  the  face  black,  the  sides  of  the  head 
yellow,   and   the  forehead   yellow  with   black 
stripes  ;  the  thorax  is  marked  with  black  lines ; 
the  abdomen  is  pale  underneath,  and  a  trans- 
parent yellow  at  the  sides,  in  the  males  ;  and  is 
speckled  with  black.     The  feet  are  black  ;  the 
wings  transparent,  and  yellowish  at  the  base.    Fig. 62.- House Fiy(,i/,/.<m 
This  species  is   extremely  plentiful  through- 
out  the  whole  of  Europe.     Every  one  knows  how  annoying  it  is 
towards   the  end  of  the  summer,   and  especially  so  in  the  South 
of  France  during  the  hot  season. 

The  Ox  Fly  (Musca  bovina),  a  near  relation  of  the  house  fly,  is 
also  very  common.  It  settles  on  the  nostrils,  the  eyes,  and  the 
wounds  of  animals. 

The  Executioner  Fly  (Musca  carnifex),  which  is  not  rare  in 
France,  also  attacks  oxen.  It  is  of  a  dark  metallic  green  colour, 
with  a  slight  ash-coloured  down.  Its  forehead  is  silvery  at  the 
front  and  sides,  the  abdomen  is  edged  with  black,  the  wings  hyaline 
and  yellow  at  the  base. 

Section  of  the  Anthomysida. — The  section  of  Anthomysidtz  com- 
prises insects  which  appear  to  be  Creophili  whose  organisation  has 
become  weakened  by  almost  insensible  degrees.  Their  colours  vary 
very  much — black,  grey,  and  iron- colour  are  everlastingly  shaded 
and  blended  together.  To  that  may  be  added  reflections  which 
are  above  the  ground  colour,  and  which  change  the  hues  of  the 
little  animal  according  to  the  incidence  of  the  rays  of  light.  The 
Anthomysidce  resemble  the  genus  Musca  very  closely  in  their  habits 
as  well  as  in  their  organisation. 

In  this  group  of  Diptera  we  will  first  say  a  few  words  about  the 
Anthomyas.  These  flies  are  to  be  found  in  all  places  and  on  all 
flowers,  particularly  on  the  heads  of  composite  and  nmbelliferco. 

G  2 


84 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


They  often  unite  in  numerous  bands  in  the  air  and  indulge  in  th 
joyous  dances  to  which  love  invites  them.  The  females  deposit  thei 
eggs  in  the  ground,  and  their  larvae  are  there  quickly  developed.  Th 
latter  suspend  themselves  to  certain  bodies,  the  same  as  som 
Lepidopterous  chrysalides,  in  order  to  transform  themselves  int 
pupae. 

The  Anthomya  pluvialis  (Fig.  63)  is  from  two  to  four  lines  i: 
length,  and  of  a  whitish  ash-colour.  Its  wings  are  hyaline,  th 
thorax  has  five  black  spots,  and  the  abdomen  three  rows  of  simila 
spots. 

We  will  stop  a  moment  with  the  Pegomyas,  which  are  very  inte 
resting  in  the  larvae  state,  and  which  excited  the  interest  am 
sagacity  of  Reaumur. 

The  cradle  of  these  Diptera  is  the  interio 
of  leaves.  They  work  as  the  miners  of  th 
vegetable  world,  in  the  parenchyma  of  th 
leaf,  between  the  two  epidermal  mem 
branes.  The  henbane,  the  sorrel,  and  th 
thistle,  especially  nourish  them.  If  on 
holds  a  leaf  in  which  one  of  these  miner 
has  established  itself  against  the  light,  on 
sees  the  workman  continually  boring  th 
vegetable  membrane.  Its  head  is  arme< 
with  a  hook,  formed  of  two  horny  pieces 
and  with  this  hook  it  digs  into  the  paren 
chyma  of  the  leaf.  The  effect  of  thi 
digging  is  visible,  as  those  places  becom 
by  degrees  transparent.  Each  blow  detache 
a  small  portion  of  the  substance  of  th 
leaf.  It  is  thus  that  these  miners  hollo\ 
out  galleries  for  themselves,  in  which  the; 

P      i       i      ij  f       i  i  '±  o 

nnd  shelter,  iood,  and  security,  oome  ar 
changed  into  pupae  in  the  gallery  which  they  have  hollowe* 
out,  others  go  out  of  the  leaves  when  they  are  near  their  fina 
transformation. 

Section  of  Acalyptera.  —  The  Acafyptera,  which  are  the  last  o 
the  great  tribe  of  Muscidte,  comprehend  the  greater  number  o 
these  insects.  Their  organisation  is  impaired  and  their  constitu 


Fig.  £3  —  Anthomya  pluvialis. 


DIPTEEA. 


85 


tion  delicate.  They  live  principally  in  the  thickest  part  of  woods, 
on  grasses  and  aquatic  plants.  Fearing  the  lustre  and  warmth  of 
the  sun,  they  never  draw  the  nectar  from  flowers.  Their  flight  is 
feeble,  and  they  never  indulge  in  those  joyous  ethereal  dances 
which  we  have  mentioned  when  speaking  of  the  preceding  groups. 
Their  life  is  generally  melancholy,  obscure,  and  hidden.  Some  of 
them  search  for  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable  substances., 
others  living  on  vegetable  matter. 

We  shall  only  be  able  in  this  immense  group  of  Muscidce  to 
mention  a  few  types  which  are  interesting  from  various  reasons, 
such  as  the  Helomyza,  the  Scatophagi,  the  Ortalidte,  the  Dad,  and 
the  Thyreophorce. 

The  Helomyzas  (Fig.  64)  live  in 
the  woods.  Their  larvae  are  developed 
in  the  interior  of  fungi.  Reaumur 
studied  the  larva  of  the  Truffle  Helo- 
myza.  The  head  of  this  fly  is  ferru- 
ginous, its  thorax  is  of  a  brownish 
grey,  its  shoulders  of  a  brownish  yel- 
low, its  wings  brownish,  the  abdomen 
yellow  and  brown,  and  the  feet  red. 
The  larvae  of  these  insects  commit 
depredations  for  which  gourmands 
will  never  forgive  them,  destroying, 
as  they  do,  their  truffles.  When  one 
presses  between  one's  fingers  a 
truffle  that  is  in  a  too  advanced 
state,  one  feels  certain  soft  parts 
which  yield  under  pressure.  On 
opening  the  truffle,  the  larvae  of  the 
insect  of  which  we  are  speaking 
will  be  found  inside.  These  larvae 
are  white  and  very  transparent. 
Their  mouth  is  armed  with  two  black 
hooks,  by  means  of  which  they  dig 

into  the  truffle  in  the  same  way  as  other  larvae  dig  into  meat. 
The  excretions  of  these  little  parasites  cause  the  truffle  to  become 
decomposed  and  rotten.  In  a  few  days  the  larvae  are  full-grown. 


Fig.  64.— A  species  of  Helomyza. 


615  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

They  then  leave  their  abode  and    go  into  the  ground,  there  to 
change  into  pupae. 

The  Ortalidte  form  a  tribe  which  is  remarkable  for  the  upright 
carriage  of  the  wings,  which  are  generally  speckled,  by  the  vibratory 
movement  of  these  organs,  and  especially  for  the  cradle  chosen  by 
them  for  their  progeny  in  fruits  and  grains.  Nature  seems  to  have 
assigned  to  each  species  its  own  particular  vegetable. 

We  will  only  mention  here  the  Cherry-tree  Ortalis,  whose 
larva  lives  on  the  pulp  of  that  fruit.  This  fly  is  about  a  line  and 
a  half  long.  It  is  of  a  rather  metallic  black  colour,  its  head  light 
yellow,  the  edges  of  its  eyes  white,  and  the  tarsi  red.  The  wings 
have  four  broad  black  stripes. 

The  Olive  Dacus   (Dacus  olece,  Fig.  65)  is  a  little  fly,  aboul 

half  the  size  of  the  house  fly 

^  of  ashy  grey  colour  on  the  back 

its  head  orange-yellow,  it; 
eyes  green,  and  its  foreheac 
yellow,  marked  with  two  larg< 
black  spots.  The  thorax  is 
adorned  with  four  lightish  yel- 
low spots,  and  its  hind  part 

Fig.65.-Dacu80le*.  ^     ^     ^      ^    antenn£e     anc 

wings,  are  of  the  same  colour.  The  wings  are  transparent,  reflect 
ing  green,  gold,  pink,  and  blue,  according  as  the  rays  of  light  fal 
upon  them,  and  are  remarkable  for  having  a  small  black  spot  a 
their  extremity.  The  abdomen  is  of  a  fawn  colour  or  orange 
yellow,  spotted  with  black  on  each  side.  This  fly  performs  suddei 
and  jerking  movements ;  it  keeps  its  wings  extended,  and  rathe: 
jumps  than  flies.  It  is  a  destructive  insect,  a  perfect  scourge,  whicl 
causes  every  two  or  three  years  a  loss  of  five  or  six  millions  o 
francs  to  French  agriculture. 

M.  Guerin-Meneville  has  made  some  valuable  observations  o] 
the  olive  dacus,  and  at  the  request  of  the  Imperial  Society  o 
Agriculture  of  Paris,  has  indicated  the  way  to  preserve  the  oliv 
from  these  ruinous  J.arva>,  which  generally  destroy  two  crops  ou 
of  three.  We  will  borrow  the  following  details  from  this  learnec 
entomologist.  "  At  the  time  when  the  olives  are  formed,  th 
dacus  proceeds  to  place  an  egg  under  the  skin  of  each  of  the  fruits 


DIPTEEA.  87 

By  means  of  a  little  horny  instrument,  with  which  the  female  is 
provided,  and  which  contains  a  small  lancet,  she  pierces  the  skin 
of  the  olive  ;  she  moves  her  wings  and  lays  her  egg.  She  after- 
wards cleans  and  rests  herself,  by  passing  her  feet  over  her  head, 
wings,  and  other  parts  of  her  body.  She  then  flies  away  and  seeks 


Fig.  66.  —Olives  attacked  by  Dacus  olese. 


another  olive  to  deposit  in  it  another  egg  ;  she  repeats  this  opera- 
tion until  she  has  placed  on  as  many  olives  the  three  or  four  hun- 
dred eggs  which  she  bears." 

Fig.  66,    taken  from   the  memoir   published   by  M.    Guerin- 


88  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

M6neville,  in  the  "Revue  Nouvelle"  of  the  15th  July,  1847,  shows 
the  dacus  laying  its  egg  on  the  olive,  and  the  larvae  that  are 
already  hatched  in  another  of  the  same  fruit.  The  larvae  which 
succeed  these  eggs  (Fig.  67)  are  whitish,  soft,  and  without  limbs. 
They  pass  fifteen  or  sixteen  days  in  boring  a  gallery  in  the  pulp  of 

the  olive,  at  first  vertically,  until  it 
reaches  the  stone,  then  on  one  side, 
and  along  the  side  of  the  stone.  When 
they  have  reached  the  term  of  their 
development,  they  approach  the  sur- 
face, enlarging  the  first  channel  and 
leaving  between  it  and  the  exterior  air 
only  a  thin  pellicle,  in  the  middle  of 

Fig.  67.— Larvae  of  Dacus  oleae  (magnified         ,   .    ,  ,  ,     ,        „  ,, 

and  natural  size).  which  may  be  perceived  the  first  small 

opening  by  which  the  mother  had  introduced  her  egg  in  the 
commencement. 

Fig.  68,  copied  from  a  drawing  in  the  memoirs  of  M.  Gue"rin- 
M6iieville,  shows  the  gallery  bored  round  the  olive  by  the  cater- 
pillar of  the  dacus.      The  larva  thus  prepares  an  easy  issue  for 
the  perfect  insect.     Its  skin  then  contracts,  its  body  diminishes  in 
length  and  is  transformed  into  an  oval  cocoon,  which  soon  gets 
brown,  and  is  the  chrysalis  of  the  insect.    At  the  side  of  the  head 
t  shows  a  curved  line,  a  thin  suture  which  marks  a  sort  of  cap  or 
door,    which,   at  the  time  of  its  hatching, 
the  insect  will  be  easily  able  to  force  open 
with  its  head.     The  fly  is  hatched  twelve 
days  after  its  metamorphosis  from  the  larva 
to  the  pupa.     It  has  thus  taken  the  dacus 
twenty- seven  to  twenty- eight  days  to  arrive 
Fig.  68.-Gaiiery  formed  by      at  this  state,  from  the  time  the  egg  was  laid ; 
besides  which,  this  species,   in   the  warm 

climates  of  Provence  and  Italy,  can  reproduce  itself  several  times 
from  the  beginning  of  July,  the  period  at  which  the  first  flies 
begin  to  lay,  till  the  end  of  autumn. 

In  order  to  save  a  considerable  portion  of  the  olive  crop  of  these 
countries,  M.  Guerin-Meneville  has  advised  hastening  the  harvest 
sufficiently  for  all  the  olives  to  be  destroyed  at  a  time  when  the 
larvae  of  the  last  generation,  which  are  to  be  preserved  in  the 


DIPTEKA.  89 

olives  that  are  left,  or  in  the  earth,  according  to  the  climate, 
are  still  in  these  fruits.  If  a  first  operation  were  not  sufficient 
to  destroy  them  all,  it  should  be  repeated  the  following  year. 
The  sacrifice  entailed  by  this  practice  would  be  amply  com- 
pensated by  a  succession  of  good  crops  and  the  certainty  of 
a  sure  and  permanent  profit.  In  fact,  by  an  early  gathering 
at  least  half  a  crop  of  oil  is  still  obtained ;  whereas  by  waiting 
for  the  usual  time  of  gathering  the  olives,  sufficient  time  is 
left  for  the  larvae  of  the  dacus  to  eat  into  their  parenchyma, 
which  takes  away  the  little  oil  that  they  might  have  given 
if  they  had  been  destroyed.  This  early  gathering  has  also  the 
advantage  of  causing  the  destruction  of  a  great  number  of  larvse, 
which  will  be  so  much  towards  diminishing  the  means  of  repro- 
duction of  the  fly. 


III. 

HEMIPTERA. 

THE  Heiniptera  are  particularly  distinguished  from  other  kinds  of 
insects  by  the  form  of  their  mouth,  which  consists  of  a  beak,  more 
or  less  long,  composed  of  six  parts,  that  is,  of  a  lower  lip  or 
sheath,  four  internal  threads,  representing  the  mandibles  and  jaws 
of  the  grinding  insects,  and  which  are  the  perforating  parts  of  the 
beak,  and,  lastly,  of  the  upper  lip  or  labrum.  Owing  to  this 
apparatus  these  insects  are  essentially  sucking  ones,  and  chiefly 
nourish  themselves  with  the  juice  of  vegetables,  which  they  draw 
up  with  their  beak.  The  wings  of  the  Hemiptera  are  usually  four 
in  number ;  sometimes  altogether  membraneous  and  similar  to 
each  other.  Sometimes  the  upper  ones  being  of  rather  harder  con- 
sistency than  the  lower  ones.  In  general,  the  former  are  quite 
different  from  the  lower  wings,  and  are  only  membraneous  at  the 
tip,  whereas  the  other  part  is  thick,  tough,  and  coriaceous. 

The  Hemiptera  are  divided  into  two  very  distinct  sections.  The 
one  is  composed  of  insects  whose  beak  grows  from  the  forehead  or 
upper  part  of  the  head,  and  of  which  the  elytra*  are  half  coria- 
ceous and  half  membraneous,  having  the  base  of  a  different  texture 
from  the  extremity  ;  these  are  the  Heteroptera  (ercpoc,  different, 
•n-repuv,  wing).  The  other  section  is  composed  of  those  whose  beak 
grows  from  the  lower  part  of  the  head,  and  of  which  the  elytra 
have  always  the  same  consistency  ;  these  are  the  Homoptera  (6/xos, 
the  same).  We  are  about  to  give  the  history  of  these  two  sub- 
orders. 

*  The  upper  wings  of  Hemiptera,  Ortl.optera,  and  Coleoptera.-—  ED. 


HEMIPTEBA. 


HETEROPTERA. 

The  insects  formerly  known  by  the  general  name  of  bugs  have 
been  divided  by  Latreille  into  two  large  families,  containing :  the 
one  the  Geocorisce*  or  Land  Bugs ;  the  other  the  Hydrocorisce,-\  or 
Water  Bugs. 

The  land  bugs  consist  of  a  great  number  of  kinds,  which,  for 
the  most  part  are  of  little  interest.  We  will  only  mention  here 
the  Pentatoma  commonly  known  as  wood  bugs,  the  Lyg&i,  bugs 
properly  so  called,  the  Reduvii,  and  the  Hydrometers. 

The  Pentatomas,  which  at  the  present  time  consist  of  several 
species,  include  the  wood  bugs  mentioned  by  most  authors.  They 
are  to  be  found  on  plants  and  trees.  They  fly  quickly,  but  only 
for  a  short  time. 

The  Ornamented  Pentatoma  (Strachia  (Pentatoma)  ornata),  known 
as  the  Red  Cabbage  Bug,  is  very  commonly 
found  on  the  cabbage  and  most  of  the  cruciferous 
plants.  It  is  variegated  with  red  and  black,  and 
its  colours  are  subject  to  numerous  variations. 
The  Grey  pentatoma  (Raphigaster  griseus) 
(Fig.  69)  is  common  throughout  the  whole  of 
Europe.  In  autumn,  these  bugs  are  frequently  Fig  b9  _Grey  Pentatoma 
to  be  found  on  raspberries,  to  which  they  (Maphigaster  griaeus). 
impart  their  disagreeable  smell.  They  are  also  to  be  found  in 
quantities  on  the  mullein  when  that  plant  is  in  flower.  The 
upper  parts  of  the  head  are  of  a  greyish  brown,  sometimes  slightly 
purple.  The  scaly  part  of  the  elytra  is  of  a  purple  tint,  but  the 
membraneous  part  is  brown.  All  these  parts  are  covered  with 
black  spots,  which  are  only  to  be  seen  with  a  magnifying-glass. 
The  wings  are  blackish.  The  underneath  part  of  the  whole  body 
and  the  feet  are  of  a  light  and  rather  yellowish  grey,  with  a  con- 
siderable number  of  small  black  spots.  The  top  of  the  abdomen  is 
quite  black  ;  but  it  is  bordered  with  alternate  black  and  white 
spots. 

We  have  repeated  here  the  description  given  of  this  bug  by  the 

*  From  yrj,  the  earth,  and  <copie,  a  bug. — ED. 
f  From  vdwp,  water,  and  »copig,  a  bug.  —  ED. 


92  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

illustrious  Swedish  naturalist,  De  Geer,  because  our  young  readers 
have  most  likely  met  with  this  insect,  or  will  do  so  some  day 
when  gathering  raspberries. 

The  Grey  Pentatoma,  marked  with  black,  yellow,  and  red,  is  to 
be  found  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe  in  cultivated  fields  and 
gardens,  sometimes  also  on  the  trunks  of  large  trees,  especially 
elms.  This  species,  in  common  with  the  greater  part  of  those  which 
compose  the  group  we  are  describing,  emits  a  smell  when 
irritated  or  menaced  with  some  danger.  At  other  times  no  odour 
will  be  noticed.  Let  us  hear  what  M.  L6on  Dufour  says  on  this 
subject. 

"  Seize  the  pentatoma  with  a  pair  of  pincers  and  plunge  it  into 
a  glass  of  clear  water ;  examine  it  through  the  magnify  ing- glass, 
and  you  will  see  innumerable  small  globules  arising  from 
its  body,  which,  on  exploding  on  the  surface,  at  once  exhale 
that  odour  which  is  so  disagreeable.  This  vapour,  which  is 
essentially  acrid,  if  it  touch  the  eyes  causes  a  considerable 
amount  of  irritation.  If  one  of  these  insects  is  held  between 
the  fingers,  so  as  not  to  stop  up  the  odoriferous  orifices,  and  to 
cause  this  vapour  to  touch  a  part  of  the  skin,  a  spot,  either 
brown  or  livid,  will  ensue  on  that  part,  which  lotions,  though 
repeatedly  applied,  will  at  first  fail  to  remove,  and  which  produces 
in  the  cutaneous  tissue  an  alteration  similar  to  that  which  suc- 
ceeds the  application  of  mineral  acids." 

The  disagreeable  smell  exhaled  by  different  species  of  Pentatoma 
is  the  result  of  a  fluid  secreted  by  a  single  gland,  of  pyramidal 
form,  and  either  red  or  yellow,  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
thorax,  and  which  terminates  between  the  hind  feet. 

With  the  Syromastes,  which  are  bugs  of  this  same  group,  the 
secretion  has,  on  the  contrary,  an  agreeable  smell,  which  reminds 
one  of  that  of  apples.  Many  kinds  of  Pentatoma  are  destructive 
to  agriculture.  Others,  however,  attack  the  destructive  insects, 
and  ought  therefore  to  be  carefully  spared.  We  will  mention  in 
this  case  the  Blue  Pentatoma,  which  kills  the  Altica*  of  the  vine. 

There  may  be  observed,  at  the  foot  and  about  the  lower  part  of 
trees,  or  at  the  base  of  walls  exposed  to  the  mid-day  sun,  groups 
of  fifty  or  sixty  small  insects  pressed  close  to  each  other,  and  often 

*  A  genus  of  beetles. — ED. 


HEMIPTEKA.  93 

one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  their  heads  in  the  direction  of  a  centre 
point.  They  are  clothed  in  black,  spotted  with  red.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris  the  children  call  them  "Suisses,"  probably 
on  account  of  the  red  on  their  bodies,  that  being  the  colour  of 
the  uniform  of  the  Swiss  troops  formerly  in  the  service  of  France. 
In  Burgundy,  the  children  call  them  "  petits  cockons  rouges.'1 
They  will  be  found  described  in  Geoffrey's  "Histoire  des  In- 
sectes,"  under  the  name  of  the  Eed  Garden  Bug.  At  the  present 
day  they  are  placed  in  the  genus  Lygceus*  When  the  bad  weather 
comes,  these  little  "  Suisses "  take  refuge  under  stones  and  the 
bark  of  trees  to  pass  the  winter.  During  the  whole  of  that  season 
they  remain  in  a  sort  of  torpid  state.  But  in  the  first  days  of 
spring  they  revive,  and  resume  their  ordinary  habits.  They  suck  the, 
sap  of  vegetables,  piercing  the  capsules  of  divers  kinds  of  mallows 
and  always  keeping  themselves  turned  to- 
wards the  sun. 

The  bug,  properly  so  called,  or  bed  bug, 
(Acanthia  lectularia  or  Cimex  lectularius,  Fig. 
70),  a  most  disagreeable  and  stinking  insect, 
abounds  in  dirty  houses,  principally  in 
towns,  and  above  all  in  those  of  warm 
countries.  It  lives  in  beds,  in  wood- work, 
and  paper-hangings.  There  is  no  crack,  Fig.  70.— s<fd  bag  (Acanthia 
however  narrow  it  may  be,  into  which  it  is  '«"•*"*»>.  magnified. 
unable  to  slip.  It  is  a  night  bird,  shunning  the  light.  "  Noc- 
turnum  fcetidum  animal, "  says  Linneeus.  Its  body  is  oval,  about 
the  fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  flat,  soft,  of  a  brown  colour,  and 
covered  with  little  hairs.  Its  head  is  provided  with  two  hairy 
antennae,  and  two  round  black  eyes,  and  has  a  short  beak,  curved 
directly  under  its  thorax,  and  lying  in  a  shallow  groove  when  the 
animal  is  at  rest.  This  beak,  composed  of  three  joints,  contains 
four  thin,  straight,  and  sharp  hairs.  The  thorax  is,  as  it  were, 
winged  on  the  sides.  The  abdomen  is  very  much  developed, 
orbicular,  composed  of  eight  segments,  very  much  depressed, 
and  easily  crushed  by  the  fingers.  The  elytra  are  rudimentary. 
It  has  no  membraneous  wings.  The  tarsi  have  three  articulations, 
of  which  the  last  is  provided  with  two  strong  hooks. 

*  This  species  is  Lygoeus  militaris. — ED. 


94  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

"These  animals,"  says  Moquin-Tandon,  in  his  "  Zoologie 
Medicale,"  "do  not  draw  up  the  sanguineous  fluid  by  suction, 
properly  so-called,  as  leeches  do.  The  organisation  of  their 
buccal  apparatus  does  not  allow  of  this.  The  hairs  of  the 
beak  applied  the  one  against  the  other  exercise  a  sort  of  alter- 
nate motion,  which  draws  the  blood  up  into  the  oasophagus,  very 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  water  rises  in  a  chain  pump.  This 
rising  is  assisted  by  the  viscous  nature  of  the  fluid,  and  above 
all,  by  the  globules  it  contains/'  The  part  of  the  skin  which  the 
bug  has  pierced,  producing  a  painful  enough  sensation,  is  easily 
recognised  by  a  little  reddish  mark,  presenting  in  its  centre  a 
dark  spot.  Generally  a  little  blister  raises  itself  on  the  point 
pierced,  and  sometimes,  if  the  bug-bites  are  numerous,  these 
blisters  become  confluent,  and  resemble  a  sort  of  eruption. 
These  disgusting  insects  lay,  towards  the  month  of  May,  oblong 
whitish  eggs  (Fig.  71),  having  a  small  aperture, 
through  which  the  larva  comes  out.  The  larva 
Fi  71  —  Egg  of  diifers  from  the  insect  in  its  perfect  state,  in  its 
Bug.magnined.  colour,  which  is  pale  or  yellowish,  and  in  having  no 
elytra  or  wings.  This  insect  exists  in  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe, 
although  it  is  rare  or  almost  unknown  in  the  northern  parts. 
The  towns  of  central  Europe  are  the  most  infested  by  this 
parasite,  but  those  of  the  north  are  not  completely  free  from 
its  presence.  The  Marquis  de  Custine  assures  us  that  at  St. 
Petersburg  he  found  them  numerous.  It  is  found  also  in  Scotland 
and  is  very  rare  in  the  south  of  Europe ;  it  is  seldom  seen  in  Italy, 
where  it  is,  however,  replaced  by  other  insects,  more  dangerous, 
or  more  annoying. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  bug  was  brought  into  Europe  from 
America,  but  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  Dioscorides  mentioned  its 
existence.  It  is  certain  that  it  was  unknown  in  England  till 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  celebrated  traveller, 
a  Spanish  naturalist,  Azavra,  has  remarked  that  the  bug  does 
not  infest  man  in  his  savage  state,  but  only  when  congregated 
together  in  a  state  of  civilization,  and  in  houses,  as  in  Europe. 
From  this  he  concluded  that  the  bug  was  not  created  till  long 
after  man,  when,  after  many  centuries  had  elapsed  since  his  appear- 
ance on  the  globe,  men  formed  themselves  into  societies,  into 


HEMIPTEEA.  95 

republics,  or  little  states.  Palaeontology  (the  science  of  fossils) 
lias  in  no  way  confirmed  this  opinion. 

The  bug  is  not  a  gluttonous  insect,  always  blood-thirsty ;  on  the 
contrary,  its  sobriety  is  remarkable.  It  is  only  after  a  prolonged 
fast  that  it  bites  animals,  and  Andouin  has  stated  that  it  can  live 
a  year  and  even  two  years  without  food. 

From  time  immemorial  a  number  of  different  means  have  been 
employed  for  destroying  these  insects  ;  but  in  spite  of  all, 
nothing  is  more  difficult  than  to  get  rid  of  them  from  wood- work 
and  paper-hangings  when  they  have  once  infested  them.  In 
general,  strong  odours  cause  their  death.  And  so,  to  rid  oneself 
of  these  disagreeable  guests,  it  has  been  recommended  to  use 
tobacco  smoke,  essence  of  turpentine,  the  fumes  of  sulphur,  &c. 
Mercurial  ointment  and  corrosive  sublimate  are  also  excellent 
means  for  their  destruction,  and  for  the  same  purpose  the  merits 
of  a  plant  belonging  to  the  order  Cruciferaa,  Lepidium  ruderale, 
have  been  much  vaunted,  and  more  recently  still  the  root  of  the 
Pyrethra,  a  species  of  Camomile,  reduced  to  powder,  and  blown 
into  furniture  or  wood-work.  This  powder  is  known  and  em- 
ployed at  Paris  under  the  name  of  " poudre  insecticide" 

There  are  two  other  -kinds  of  bugs  (Acanthia]  which  attack  men. 
The  one  is  the  Acanthia  ciliata,  which  has  been  found  in  the  houses 
of  Kazan,  and  which  differs  from  the  bed  bug  not  only  in  its  form, 
but  also  in  its  habits.  It  does  not  live  in  companies,  in  the  narrow 
cracks  of  furniture,  but  moves  about  alone,  at  a  slow  pace,  over 
the  walls  or  counterpanes  of  beds.  Its  beak  is  very  long,  and  its 
bite  is  very  painful,  and  produces  obstinate  swellings. 

The  other  species  is  the  Acanthia  arrondata,  which  is  found  in 
the  Island  of  La  Reunion,  and  attacks  men  in  the  same  way  as 
does  the  European  bug.  Two  species  of  the  same  genus  live  as 
parasites  on  swallows  and  domestic  pigeons.  There  is  another 
species  which  is  peculiar  to  the  bats  of  our  climates. 

The  Reduvius  personatus,  called  also  fly-bug,  by  Geoffrey,  the 
old  historian  of  the  insects  of  the  environs  of  Paris,  is  common 
enough  in  France.  It  keeps  to  the  houses,  and  is  found  especially 
near  ovens  and  chimney-pieces.  It  is  about  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  in  length,  oblong,  flat  on  its  upper  side,  brownish,  has  hori- 
zontal elytra  crossed  over  each  other,  and  very  fully  developed 


96  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

wings,  which  serve  for  flight.  Its  head,  narrow,  supported  by  a 
well-defined  neck,  is  provided  with  two  composite,  and  two  simple 
eyes.  It  requires,  no  doubt,  to  see  very  clearly,  as  it  flies  by 
night.  It  should  not  be  caught  without  great  caution.  If 
you  desire  to  examine  it  closely,  when  in  the  hottest  part  of  the 
summer  it  comes  in  the  evening,  and  flutters  round  the  lights, 
you  must  be  careful  how  you  seize  it,  for  it  stings.  The  wounds 
inflicted  by  it  are  very  painful,  more  painful  than  those  of  the 
bee,  and  they  immediately  cause  a  swelling  in  the  member 
wounded. 

As  the  lieduvius  kills  different  insects  very  rapidly  by  piercing 
them  with  its  long  beak,  it  is  probable  that  it  secretes  some  kind 
of  venom.  But  as  yet  the  organ  that  produces  this  poison  has  not 
been  discovered.  However  that  may  be,  its  beak  is  curved,  and 
about  the  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  the  surface  bristling  with  hairs. 
It  is  composed  of  four  joints,  and  contains  four  stiff,  lanceolate,  and 
very  pointed  squamose  hairs. 

This  insect  often  attacks  other  little  insects  in  the  place  where 
spiders  spin  their  webs.  When  they  walk  on,  or  are  caught  in, 
the  spiders'  webs,  the  spiders  take  care  not  to  seize  them,  for  they 
fear  their  sting.  They  prudently  allow  them  to  toss  about  in 
their  nets,  where  they  very  soon  die  of  hunger.  The  Reduvius 
is  often  seen,  either  a  prisoner  or  dead,  in  the  midst  of  a  spider's 
web. 

We  will  let  a  celebrated  naturalist,  Charles  de  Gfeer,  that  savant 
who  has  acquired  more  glory  than  any  other  since  Reaumur,  by 
his  profound  and  persevering  studies  of  the  habits  and  organisation 
of  insects,  speak.  De  Geer  was  a  Swede,  and  a  contemporary  of 
Reaumur's.  Let  us  listen  to  what  the  Swedish  Reaumur  says 
about  the  Reduvius  personatus : — 

"  This  bug,"  says  Charles  de  Geer,  "  has,  in  the  pupal  condition, 
or  before  its  wings  are  developed,  an  appearance  altogether  hideous 
and  revolting.  One  would  take  it,  at  the  first  glance,  for  one  of 
the  ugliest  of  spiders.  That  which  above  all  renders  it  so  dis- 
agreeable to  the  sight  is  that  it  is  entirely  covered  and,  as  it  were, 
enveloped  with  a  greyish  matter,  which  is  nothing  else  but  the 
dust  which  one  sees  in  the  corners  of  badly- swept  rooms,  and 
which  is  generally  mixed  with  sand  and  particles  of  wool,  or  silk, 


HEMIPTEKA.  97 

or  other  similar  matters  which  come  from  furniture  and  clothes, 
rendering  the  legs  of  this  insect  'thick  and  deformed,  and  giving  to 
its  whole  body  a  very  singular  appearance." 

What  instincts  !  what  habits  !  Under  this  borrowed  costume, 
under  this  cloak,  which  is  no  part  of  itself,  the  insect,  as  it  were 
masked,  has  become  twice  its  real  size.  What  becomes  of  its  dis- 
guise, and  how  does  it  manage  to  walk  ?  Of  what  use  to  it  is  this 
dirty  and  grotesque  fancy  dress  ? 

Let  us  listen  to  De  Greer.  "  It  walks  as  fast,  when  it  likes,  as 
other  bugs ;  but  generally  its  walk  is  slow,  and  it  moves  with 
measured  steps.  After  having  taken  one  step  forward,  it  stops 
awhile,  and  then  takes  another,  leaving,  at  each  movement,  the 
opposite  leg  in  repose  ;  it  goes  on  thus  continually,  step  after  step 
in  succession,  which  gives  it  the  appearance  of  walking  as  if  by 
jerks,  and  in  measure.  It  makes  almost  the  same  sort  of  move- 
ment with  its  antennae,  which  it  moves  also  at  intervals  and  by 
jerks.  All  these  movements  have  a  more  singular  appearance  than 
it  is  possible  for  us  to  describe."* 

By  means  of  this  disguise,  it  can  approach  little  animals,  which 
become  its  prey,  such  as  flies,  spiders,  bed-bugs. 

To  see  what  a  curious  appearance  the  Reduvius  presents,  one 
should  take  off  its  borrowed  costume.  Then  you  will  see  an 


Fig.  72.— Reduvius  personatus,  covered  with  Fig.  73.— Reduvius  personatus,  denuded 

its  cloak  of  dust  (magnified).  of  its  cloak  of  dust  (magnified). 

entirely  different  animal,  and  one  which  has  nothing  repulsive  about 
it.     With  the  exception  of  the  elytra  and  wings,  which  it  has 

*  "Memoires  pour  servir  h  1'Histoire   des  Insectes."     Stockholme,  in  4to.  1773. 
Tome  iii.,  p.  283. 


98  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

not  yet  got,  all  its  parts  have  the  form  which  they  are  to  have 
later,  after  the  wings  are  developed.' 

Fig.  72  represents,  after  Charles  de  Geer's  memoir,  the  pupa  of 
the  Redumus  personatus  covered  with  dust,  and  resembling  a 
spider ;  Fig.  73,  the  same  insect  cleaned — freed  from  the  cloak  of 
dust  which  served  to  disguise  it. 

The  Hydrometrce,  (from  vSwp,  water,  and  /x,erpe«/,  to  measure)  have 
linear  bodies.  The  head,  which  forms  nearly  the  third  of  the 

entire  length,  is  furnished  with 
two  long  antennae,  and  armed 
with  a  thin,  hair-like  beak.  The 
legs  are  long,  and  of  equal  length. 
The  reader  may  have  often  seen 
Fig.  74.-Hydrometra  stagnorum,  the  Hydrometra  stagnorum  walk- 

ing by  jerks  on  the  surface  of  the  water  (Fig.  74).  The  body 
and  legs  are  of  a  ferruginous  colour,  the  elytra  a  dull  brown, 
and  the  wings  hyaline  or  glassy,  and  slightly  blackish.  Geoffrey 
says  that  it  resembles  a  long  needle,  and  calls  it  the  Needle-bug. 

The  Hydrocorisce,  or  Water-bugs,  have  the  antennae  shorter  than 
the  head,  or  scarcely  attaining  to  its  length,  and  inserted  and 
hidden  under  the  eyes,  which  are  in  general  of 
remarkable  size.  All  these  Hemiptera  are  aquatic 
and  carnivorous.  We  will  mention  the  two  prin- 
cipal types,  the  Neptf,  or  water  scorpions,  and 
the  Notonecte,  or  boatmen. 

The  Nepa  cinerea  (Fig.  75),  which  Geoffroy 
calls  the  oval-bodied  water  scorpion,  and  which 
he  also  designates  by  the  name  of  the  water  spider, 
is  very  common  in  the  stagnant  waters  of  ponds 
and  ditches.  Its  body,  oval,  very  flat,  of  an  ashy 
colour,  with  red  on  the  abdomen,  is  four-fifths  of  an 
Fig  75  inch  long.  The  elytra  are  horizontal,  coriaceous, 

Nepa  cinerea.  and  of  a  dirty  grey.  Its  front  legs,  with  short 
haunches,  and  very  broad  thighs,  are  terminated  by  strong  pincers, 
which  give  to  the  insect  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  scorpion. 
It  is  by  folding  back  the  leg  and  the  tarsus  under  the  thigh,  that 
the  animal  holds  its  prey,  and  sucks  it  with  its  rostrum  or  beak. 
This  rostrum  is  composed  of  three  joints,  and  contains  four 


HEMIPTEEA.  99 

pointed  bristles.  Two  present  on  one  side  a  sort  of  narrow  sharp 
blade,  and  have  teeth  towards  their  base.  Of  the  two  others,  the 
pne  is  a  thin  smooth  needle,  the  other  is  provided  with  hairs 
directed  backwards  and  forwards. 

It  is  with  this  rostrum,  which  resembles  a  case  of  surgical  in- 
struments, that  the  Nepa  bites  and  sucks  little  aquatic  insects,  not 
even  sparing  its  own  species.  Its  bite  is  painful  to  man,  but 
not  in  the  least  dangerous.  With  its  four  hind  legs  the  Nepa 
swims,  but  at  a  very  slow  pace.  It  generally  drags  itself  along 
the  bottom  of  the  water,  on  the  mud,  and  does  not  avoid  the 
hand  put  out  to  seize  it.  Its  body  is  terminated  by  a  tail,  composed 
of  two  grooved  threads,  which,  when  applied  together,  form  a  tube, 
capable  of  being  moved  from  side  to  side.  Through  this  canal  it 
breathes  the  outer  air ;  it  puts  the  end  of  it  out  of  the  water,  and 
the  air  enters  it  by  inspiration.  Some  very  small  hairs,  with 
which  the  interiors  of  the  grooves  are  lined,  interlace  each  other, 
and  prevent  the  water  from  penetrating  into  the  canal.  It  is 
probable  that  this  same  canal  serves  also  for  depositing  the  eggs. 
These  last  resemble  small  seeds,  covered  with  points,  and  are 
buried  in  the  stalks  of  aquatic  plants. 

Next  to  the  Nepa  comes  the  Ranatra,  with  a  cylindrical,  elon- 
gated, linear  body,  with  very  long  and  very  thin  hind  legs,  and  of 
which  one  species,  which  Geoffrey 
calls  the  "  aquatic  scorpion  with  an 
elongated  body,"  is  common  every- 
where in  stagnant  waters  in  spring. 
It  is  brownish,  carnivorous,  and  very 
voracious. 

We  must  now  mention  the  genus 
Corixa,  of  which  one  species,  the 
Corixa  striata,  is  very  common. 
This  insect  walks  badly  and  slowly 

on  land,  but  swims  and  cuts  through  the  water  with  a  prodigious 
rapidity. 

However,  it  is  not  to  delay  over  this  last  species  that  we  have  here 
written  the  name  of  this  genus.  Some  insects  which  belong  to  it, 
and  which  are  found  in  Mexico,  deserve  to  be  mentioned,  on  account 
of  certain  peculiarities  which  their  eggs  present.  A  naturalist, 

H2 


100  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

M.  Virlet  d'Aoust,  has  published  the  following  details  on  this 
subject : — 

"  Thousands  of  small  amphibious  flies/'  says  M.  Virlet  d'Aoust, 
"  flit  about  in  the  air  on  the  surface  of  lakes,  and  diving  down  into 
the  water  many  feet  and  even  many  fathoms,  go  to  the  bottom  to 
lay  their  eggs,  and  only  emerge  from  the  water  probably  to  die 
close  by.  We  were  fortunate  enough  to  be  present  at  a  great 
fishing  or  harvest  of  the  eggs,  which,  under  the  Mexican  name 
of  hautle  (haoutle),  serve  for  food  to  the  Indians,  who  seem  to  be 
no  less  fond  of  them  than  the  Chinese  are  of  their  swallows'  nests, 
which  they  resemble  somewhat  in  taste.  Only  the  hautle  is  far 
from  commanding  such  high  prices  as  the  Chinese  pay  for  their 
birds'  nests,  which  for  that  reason  are  reserved  entirely  for  the  tables 
of  the  rich  ;  while,  for  a  few  small  coins,  we  were  able  to  carry  away 
with  us  about  a  bushel  of  the  hautle,  of  which,  at  our  request, 
Mme.  B was  kind  enough  to  prepare  us  a  part. 

"They  dress  these  in  different  ways,  but  generally  make 
a  sort  of  cake,  which  is  served  up  with  a  sauce,  to  which  the 
Mexicans  give  a  zest,  as  they  do  indeed  to  all  their  dishes,  by 
adding  to  it  chilie,  which  is  composed  of  green  pimento  crushed. 
This  is  how  the  natives  proceed  when  they  are  fishing  for  hautle : 
they  form  with  reeds  bent  together  a  sort  of  fasces,  which  they  place 
vertically  in  the  lake  at  some  distance  from  the  bank,  and  as  these 
are  bound  together  by  one  of  the  reeds,  whose  ends  are  so  arranged 
as  to  form  an  indicating  buoy,  it  is  easy  to  draw  them  out  at  will. 
Twelve  to  fifteen  days  suffice  for  each  reed  in  these  fasces  to  be 
entirely  covered  with  eggs,  which  they  thus  fish  up  by  millions. 
The  former  are  then  left  to  dry  in  the  sun,  on  a  cloth,  for  an  hour 
or  more ;  the  grains  are  then  easily  detached.  After  this  operation, 
they  are  replaced  in  the  water  for  the  next  hautle  harvest." 

M.  Yirlet  had  attributed  to  flies  the  eggs  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking.  But  in  1851  M.  Guerin-Meneville,  having  re- 
ceived, transmitted  to  him  by  M.  Ghiliani,  eggs  of  which  hautle 
is  made,  and  some  of  the  insects  said  to  produce  them,  stated  that 
the  latter  belonged  to  two  different  species.  Throne  had  been 
known  a  long  time  since  under  the  name  of  Corixa  mercenaria  ; 
M.  Guerin-Meneville  called  the  other  Corixa femorata. 

The  same  entomologist  discovered,  among  the  eggs  of   these 


HEMIPTEEA.  101 

two  species,  other  eggs  of  a  more  considerable  size,  and  which  he 
attributed  to  a  new  species  of  the  genus  Notonecta,  about  which 
we  are  now  going  to  say  a  few  words. 

The  Notonecta  glaitca,  which  Geoffrey  calls  the  large  bug  with 
oars  ("Grande  punaise  a  avirons"),  is  very  common  in  ditches,  reser- 
voirs, and  stagnant  waters.  Its  body  is  oblong,  narrow,  contracted 
posteriorly,  convex  above,  flat  below,  having,  at  its  sides  and  its 
extremities,  hairs  which,  when  spread  out,  support  the  animal  on 
the  water.  Its  head  is  large  and  of  a  slightly  greenish  grey,  and 
has  on  each  of  its  sides  a  very  large  eye  of  a  pale  brown  colour. 
Its  thorax  is  greyish,  the  elytra  of  a  greenish  grey,  the  mem- 
branous wings  white.  Of  its  legs  the  front  four  are  short ;  but 
the  hind  legs,  almost  twice  as 
long,  are  furnished  with  long 
hairs,  and  resemble  oars.  It 
is  with  the  aid  of  these  that 
the  animal  moves  through  the 
water;  and  it  does  so  in  a 
singular  manner,  placing  itself 
on  its  back,  and  generally  rig.77.-Not<mectagiauca. 

in  an  inclined  position,  as  in  Fig.  77. 

"When  this  insect,  on  the  contrary,  drags  itself  along  on  the 
mud,  the  front  legs  are  those  which  it  employs,  the  hind  legs 
being  idle,  and  merely  drawn  along  behind  it.  It  is  generally  to- 
wards the  evening  or  during  the  night  that  it  comes  out  of  the 
water,  to  walk  and  to  fly,  if  it  wishes  to  pass  from  one  marsh  to 
another. 

This  blood-thirsty  insect  lives  entirely  by  rapine ;  it  is  one  of 
the  most  carnivorous  of  insects.  Those  which  it  attacks  die 
very  soon  after  they  have  been  bitten  by  it.  De  Geer  thinks 
that  the  water-bug  drops  into  the  wound  a  poisonous  humour. 
It  seizes  upon  insects  much  bigger,  and  apparently  much  stronger, 
than  itself,  and  does  not  spare  its  own  species. 

The  instrument  with  which  the  Notonecta  attacks  its  prey  is 
composed  of  a^very  strong  and  very  long  conical  beak,  formed 
of  four  joints.  The  sucker  is  composed  of  an  upper  piece,  short, 
pointed,  and  of  four  fine  pointed  hairs. 

The  female  of  the  Notonecta  glauca  lays  a  great  number  of  eggs, 


102  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

white,  and  of  elongated  shape,  which  it  deposits  on  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  The  eggs  are  hatched  at  the  beginning 
of  spring,  or  in  May,  and  the  young  ones  at  once  begin  to  swim 
about  like  their  mother,  on  their  backs,  belly  upwards.  M.  Leon 
Dufour  says  on  this  subject : — 

"  A  dorsal  region,  raised  like  a  donkey's  back,  or  like  the  rounded 
keel  of  a  boat,  and  covered  with  a  velvety  substance,  which  renders 
it  impermeable,  numerous  fine  fringes  which  garnish  either  the 
hind  legs,  or  the  borders  of  the  abdomen  and  thorax,  or  lastly  in 
a  double  row  a  small  crest  or  comb  running  down  the  surface  of 
the  belly,  and  which  spread  themselves  out  or  fold  themselves 
in  at  the  will  of  the  insect,  just  like  fins,  favour  both  this  supine 
attitude  and  the  accuracy  of  the  swimming  movements  of  the 
Notonecta.  Since  nature,  which  seems  often  to  delight  in  pro- 
ducing extraordinary  exceptions  to  her  ordinary  rules,  thus  bearing 
witness  to  the  immensity  of  her  resources,  had  condemned  this 
animal  to  pass  its  life  in  an  inverted  position,  it  was  necessary,  for 
the  maintenance  of  its  existence,  that  it  should  provide  it  with  an 
organization  in  harmony  with  this  attitude.  It  is  also  for  this 
object  that  its  head  is  bent  over  its  chest ;  that  its  eyes,  of  an  oval 
shape,  can  see  below  from  above ;  that  the  front  as  well  as  the 
middle  legs,  agile  and  curved,  solely  destined  for  prehension,  can 
to  a  certain  extent  become  unbent  by  means  of  the  elongated 
haunches  which  fix  them  to  the  body,  and  clutch  firm  hold  of 
their  prey  with  the  strong  claws  which  terminate  the  tarsi." 

HOMOPTERA. 

We  come  now  to  the  second  group  of  order  Hemiptera,  namely 
Homoptera. 

The  insects  which  compose  this  division  are  numerous.  They 
may  be  arranged  into  three  great  families,  of  the  most  remarkable 
members  of  which  we  shall  give  some  account.  These  are  the 
Cicadarite,  the  Apkidii  or  Plant-lice,  and  the  Gallinsecta. 

The  Cicada  is  the  type  of  the  first  of  these  families.  It  has  a 
deafening  and  monotonous  song ;  as  Bilboquet  says,  in  the  "  Saltim- 
banques,"  "  those  who  like  that  note  have  enough  of  it  for  their 
money."  Yirgil  pronounced  a  just  criticism  on  the  song  of  the 


HEMIPTEEA.  103 

Cicada :  he  saw  in  it  nothing  better  than  a  hoarse  and  disagree- 
able sound : — 

"  At  mecum  raucis,  tua  dum  vestigia  lustre, 
Sole  sub  ardenti  resonant  arbusta  cicadis," 

says  the  Latin  poet  in  his  "  Eclogues/'  and  repeats  the  same  opinion 
in  a  verse  in  his  "  Georgics  :" — 

"  Et  cantu  qnerulso  rumpent  arbusta  cicadee." 

The  song  of  the  Cicada,  so  sharp,  so  discordant,  was,  however, 
the  delight  of  the  Greeks. 

Listen  to  Plato  in  the  first  few  lines  of  "  Phcedo  : "  "  By  Juno," 
cries  the  philosopher-poet,  "what  a  charming  place  for  repose! 
....  It  might  well  be  consecrated  to  some  nymphs  and  to  the 
river  Achelous,  to  judge  by  these  figures  and  statues.  Taste  a 
little  the  good  air  one  breathes.  How  charming,  how  sweet ! 
One  hears  as  a  summer  noise,  a  harmonious  murmur  accompany- 
ing the  chorus  of  the  Cicada." 

The  Greeks  then  had  quite  a  peculiar  taste  for  the  song  of  the 
Cicada.  They  liked  to  hear  its  screeching  notes,  sharp  as  a  point 
of  steel.  To  enjoy  it  quite  at  their  ease,  they  shut  them  up 
in  open  wicker-work  cages,  pretty  much  in  the  same  way 
as  children  shut  up  the  cricket,  so  as  to  hear  its  joyous  cri-cri. 
They  carried  their  love  for  this  insect  with  the  screaming  voice  so 
far  as  to  make  it  the  symbol  of  music.  We  see,  in  drawings  emblem- 
atical of  the  musical  art,  a  Cicada  resting  on  strings  of  a  cythera. 
A  Grecian  legend  relates  that  one  day  two  cythera  players, 
Eunomos  and  Aristo,  contending  on  this  sonorous  instrument, 
one  of  the  strings  of  the  former's  cythera  having  broken,  a  Cicada 
settled  on  it,  and  sang  so  well  in  place  of  the  broken  cord,  that 
Eunomos  gained  the  victory,  thanks  to  this  unexpected  assistant. 
Anacreon  composed  an  ode  in  honour  of  the  Cicada.  "Happy 
Cicada,  that  on  the  highest  branches  of  the  trees,  having  drank 
a  little  dew,  singest  like  a  queen !  Thy  realm  is  all  thou  seest 
in  the  fields,  all  which  grows  in  the  forests.  Thou  art  beloved  by 
the  labourer ;  no  one  harms  thee ;  the  mortals  respect  thee  as  the 
sweet  harbinger^  of  summer.  Thou  art  cherished  by  the  muses, 
cherished  by  Phoebus  himself,  who  has  given  thee  thy  harmonious 
song.  Old  age  does  not  oppress  thee.  0  good  little  animal, 
sprung  from  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  loving  song,  free  from  sufiPer- 


104  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

ing,  that  hast  neither  blood  nor  flesh,  what  is  there  prevents  thee 
from  being  a  god  ?" 

It  was  in  virtue  of  the  false  ideas  of  the  Greeks  on  natural 
history  in  general,  and  on  the  Cicada  in  particular,  that  this  little 
animal  symbolized,  among  the  Athenians,  nobility  of  race.  They 
imagined  that  the  Cicada  was  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  earth, 
and  in  its  bosom,  on  which  account  those  who  pretended  to  an 
ancient  and  high  origin,  wore  in  their  hair  a  golden  Cicada.  The 
Locrians  had  on  their  coins  the  image  of  a  Cicada.  This  is  the 
origin  which  fable  assigns  to  the  custom  : — 

The  bank  of  the  river  upon  which  Locris  was  built  was  covered 
with  screeching  legions  of  Cicadas ;  whereas  they  were  never  heard 
(so  says  the  legend)  on  the  opposite  bank,  on  which  stood  the  town 
Rhegium.  In  explanation  of  this  circumstance,  they  pretended 
that  Hercules,  wishing  one  day  to  sleep  on  this  bank,  was  so 
tormented  by  "  the  sweet  eloquence  "  of  the  Cicada,  that,  furious 
at  their  concert,  he  asked  of  the  gods  that  they  should  never  sing 
there  more  for  ever,  and  his  prayer  was  immediately  granted ! 
This  is  why  the  Locrians  adopted  the  Cicada  as  the  arms  of  their 
city. 

The  Greeks  did  not  only  delight  as  poets  and  musicians  in  the 
song  of  the  Cicada ;  they  were  not  content  with  addressing  to  it 
poems,  with  adoring  it  and  striking  medals  bearing  its  image ; 
obedient  to  their  grosser  appetites,  they  eat  it.  They  thus  satisfied 
at  the  same  time  both  the  mind,  the  spirit,  and  the  body. 

The  Cicadas  are  easily  to  be  recognised  by  their  heavy,  very 
robust,  and  rather  thick- set  bodies,  by  their  broad  head,  unpro- 
longed,  having  very  large  and  prominent  ocelli,  or  simple  eyes, 
three  in  number,  arranged  in  a  triangle  on  the  top  of  the  fore- 
head, and  short  antennao.  The  young  elytra  and  wings  have  the 
shape  of  a  sheath  or  case  enveloping  the  body.  When  the  insect 
is  at  rest,  these  are  transparent  and  destitute  of  colour,  or 
sometimes  adorned  with  bright  and  varied  hues.  The  legs 
are  not  in  the  least  suited  for  jumping.  The  female  is  provided 
with  an  auger  with  which  she  makes  holes  in  the  bark  of  trees 
in  which  to  lay  her  eggs.  The  male  (Fig.  78)  is  provided  with 
an  organ,  not  of  song,  but  of  stridulation  or  screeching,  which 
is  very  rudimentary  in  the  female.  We  will  stop  a  moment  to 


HEMIPTERA. 


105 


Fig.  78.— Cicada 
(Male). 


consider  the  apparatus  for  producing  the  song,  or  rather  the  noise, 

of  the  male  Cicada,  and  the  structure  of  the 

female's  auger.     We  are  indebted  to  Reaumur 

for  the  discovery  of  the  mechanism  by  the  aid 

of  which  the  Cicada  produces  the  sharp  noise 

which   announces   its   whereabouts  from  afar. 

We  will  give   a   summary  of   the   celebrated 

memoir  in  which   the  French  naturalist  has 

so  admirably  described  the  musical  apparatus 

of  the  Cicada.* 

It  is  not  in  the  throat  that  the  Cicada's  organ 
of  sound  is  placed,  but  on  the  abdomen.  On 
examining  the  abdomen  of  the  male  of  a  large 
species  of  Cicada,  one  remarks  on  it  two  squa- 
mose  plates,  of  pretty  good  size,  which  are 
not  found  on  the  females.  Each  plate  has 
one  side  straight ;  the  rest  of  its  outline  is  rounded.  It  is  by  the 
side  which  is  rectilinear  that  the  plate  is  fixed  immediately 
underneath  the  third  pair  of  legs.  It  can  be  slightly  raised  with 
an  effort,  by  two  prickly  pegs,  each  of  which  presses  upon  one  of 
the  plates,  and  when  it  is  raised,  prevents  it  from  being  raised 
too  much,  and  make  it  fall  back  again  immediately. 

If  the  two  plates  are  removed  and  turned  over  on  the  thorax, 
and  the  parts  which  they  hide  laid  bare,  one  is  struck  by 
the  appearance  which  is  presented.  "  One  cannot  doubt  that  all 
one  sees  has  been  made  to  enable  the  Cicada  to  sing/'  says 
Eeaumur.  "When  one  compares  the  parts  which  have  been 
arranged  so  that  it  may  be  able  to  sing,  as  we  may  say  from  its 
belly,  with  the  organs  of  our  throat,  one  finds  that  ours  have  not 
been  made  with  more  care  than  those  by  means  of  which  the  Cicada 
gives  forth  sounds  which  are  not  always  agreeable." 

We  here  perceive  a  cavity  which  has  been  placed  in  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  abdomen,  and  which  is  divided  into  two  principal 
cells  by  a  scaly  triangle. 

"  The  bottom  of  each  cell  offers  to  children  who  catch  the  Cicada, 
a  spectacle  which  amuses  them,  and  which  may  be  admired  by 
men  who  know  how  to  make  the  best  use  of  their  reason.  The 


Memoire,  tome  v.  4to. 


106  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

children  think  they  see  a  little  mirror  of  the  thinnest  and  most 
transparent  glass,  or  that  a  little  blade  of  the  most  beautiful  talc  is 
set  in  the  bottom  of  each  of  these  little  cells.  That  which  one  might 
see  if  this  were  the  case  would  in  no  way  differ  from  what  one 
actually  sees ;  the  membrane  which  is  stretched  out  at  the  bottom 
of  the  cells  does  not  yield  in  transparency  either  to  glass  or 
to  talc ;  and  if  one  looks  at  it  obliquely,  one  sees  in  it  all  the 
beautiful  colours  of  the  rainbow.  It  seems  as  if  the  Cicada  has 
two  glazed  windows  through  which  one  can  see  into  the  interior  of 
its  body." 

The  scaly  triangle  of  which  we  spoke  above  only  separates  in 
two  the  lower  part  of  the  cavity.  The  upper  part  is  filled  by  a 
white,  thin,  but  strong  membrane.  This  membrane  is  only  drawn 
tight,  when  the  body  of  the  Cicada  is  in  an  upright  position.  But 
with  all  this,  where  is  the  organ  of  song  ?  What  parts  produce  the 
sound  ?  "Reaumur  will  enlighten  us  on  this  point. 

He  opened  the  back  of  a  Cicada,  and  laid  bare  the  portion  of  the 
interior  which  corresponds  with  the  cavity  where  the  mirrors  are, 
and  was  immediately  struck  with  the  size  of  the  two  muscles  which 
meet  and  are  attached  to  the  back  of  the  scaly  triangle,  and  to 
that  one  of  its  angles  from  which  start  the  sides  which  form  the 
cavities  in  which  are  both  the  mirrors. 

"  Muscles  of  such  strength,  placed  in  the  belly  of  the  Cicada,  and 
in  that  part  of  the  belly  in  which  they  are  found,  seem  to  be  only 
so  placed  in  order  that  they  may  move  quickly,  backwards  and 
forwards,  those  parts  which,  being  set  in  motion,  produce  the  noise 
or  song.  And  indeed,  whilst  I  was  examining  one  of  these 
muscles,  in  moving  it  about  gently  with  a  pin,  slightly  displacing 
it,  and  then  letting  it  return  to  its  proper  place,  it  so  happened 
that  I  made  a  Cicada  that  had  been  dead  for  many  months  sing. 
The  song,  as  might  be  expected,  was  not  loud  ;  but  it  was  strong 
enough  to  lead  me  on  to  the  discover}?-  of  the  part  to  which  it  was 
due.  I  had  only  to  follow  the  muscle  I  had  been  moving,  to 
search  for  the  part  on  which  it  abutted." 

In  the  large  cavity  in  which  are  the  mirrors  and  the  other  parts 
mentioned  above,  there  are  besides  two  equal  and  similar  com- 
partments, two  cells  in  which  are  placed  the  instrument  of  sound. 
This  is  a  membrane  in  the  shape  of  a  kettledrum,  not  smooth, 


HEMIPTEEA.  107 

but,  on  the  contrary,  crumpled  and  full  of  wrinkles  (Fig.  79).  When 
it  is  touched,  it  is  more  sonorous  than  the  driest  parchment.  If  ihe\     c 
furrows  or  its  convex  surface  are  rubbed  with  a  small  body  without,  \      * 
such  as  a  piece  of  paper,  piercing  or  tearing,  it  is  easily  made  to/ 
sound ;    and  the  sound  is  occasioned  by  the  portions  of  the  kettle- 
drum which  are  depressed  by  the  friction  of  the 
small  body,  returning  to  their  former  position  as 
soon  as  it  has  ceased  to  act  upon  them.     It  is  here 
that  the  two  strong  muscles  act  whose  existence 
and  use  were  discovered  by  Reaumur. 

"  It  is  clear,"  says  this  naturalist,  "  that  when 
the  muscle  is  alternately  contracted  and  expanded 
with  rapidity,  one  convex  portion  of  the  kettle- 
drum will  be  rendered  concave,  and  will  then  re- 
assume  its  convex  form  by  the  force  of  its  own 
spring.  Then  this  noise  will  be  made,  this  song  _,  ,  AFig* 79- 

o^  o  Musical  Apparatus  of  the 

of  which  we   have  been  so  long  seeking  an  ex-         Male  cicada. 
planation,  because  we  wished  to  find  out  all  the  parts  by  means 
of  which  He,  who  never  makes  anything  without  its   use,  willed 
that  it  should  be  produced." 

Let  us  add,  to  complete  what  we  have  already  said  on  this  sub- 
ject, that  if  the  kettledrums  are  the  essential  organs  of  the  insect's 
song,  the  mirrors,  the  white  and  wrinkled  membranes,  and  the 
exterior  shutters  which  cover  in  the  whole  apparatus,  contribute 
largely,  as  Reaumur  pointed  out,  to  modify  and  strengthen  the 
sound. 

"We  have  said  above  that  the  female  Cicada  does  not  sing.  And 
so  her  singing  organs  are  quite  rudimentary.  This  fact,  moreover, 
has  been  known  for  ages.  Xenarchus,  a  poet  of  Rhodes,  says, 
with  little  gallantry  : — 

"  Happy  Cicadas  !  thy  females  are  deprived  of  voice  !  " 

Nature  has  indemnified  the  female  Cicada  for  this  privation,  by 
giving  her  an  instrument  less  noisy  indeed,  but  more  useful.  This  is 
a  sort  of  auger,  destined  to  saw  through  the  bark  of  the  branches 
of  trees,  and  lodged  in  the  last  segment  of  the  abdomen,  which, 
for  this  purpose,  is  hollowed  out  groove-wise.  By  the  aid  of  a 
system  of  muscles  the  auger  can  be  protruded  or  retracted  at 


108 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


pleasure.     It  is  furnished  with  three  implements.     In  the  middle 

there  is  a  piercer  or  bodkin, 
which  when  run  into  a  branch 
supports  the  insect,  and  two 
stylets,  whose  upper  edges, 
having  teeth  like  a  saw,  rest- 
ing back  to  back,  on  the  middle 
implement,  move  up  and  down 
it.  With  this  admirable  in- 
strument, the  female  Cicada 
incises  obliquely  the  bark  and 
wood  until  she  has  almost 
reached  the  pith  (Fig.  80).  The 
male  sings  while  she  is  at  work. 
When  the  cell  is  sufficiently 
deep  and  properly  prepared, 
the  female  lays  at  the  bottom 
of  it  from  five  to  eight  eggs. 

From  these  eggs  come  very 
small  white  grubs  (Fig.  81), 
which  leave  their  nest,  de- 
scend by  the  trunk,  and  bury 
themselves  in  the  ground, 
where  they  devour  the  roots 
of  the  tree.  They  then  become 
pupse,  and  hollowing  out  the  earth  with  their  front  legs,  which 
are  very  much  developed,  continue  to  live  at  the  expense 
of  the  roots.  At  the  end  of  spring  these  pupae  (Fig.  82)  come 
out  of  the  earth,  hook  themselves  on  to  the  trunks  of  trees, 
and  strip  themselves  one  fine  evening  of  their  skin,  which  remains 
whole  and  dried.  Yery  weak  at  first,  these  metamorphosed  insects 
drag  themselves  along  with  difficulty.  But  next  day,  warmed 
by  the  first  rays  of  the  sun,  having  had,  no  doubt,  time  to  reflect 
on  their  new  social  position,  and  less  astonished  than  they  were 
on  the  preceding  evening,  they  agitate  their  wings,  they  fly,  and 
the  males  send  forth  into  the  air  the  first  notes  of  their  screeching 
concert.  The  Cicadas  remain  on  trees,  whose  sap  they  suck  by 
means  of  their  sharp-pointed  beak.  It  is  difficult  enough  to 


Fig.  80.— Female  Cicada  laying  her  eggs  in  the 
groove  she  has  bored  in  the  branch  of  a  tree. 


HEMIPTEEA.  109 

catch  them,  for   owing   to   their  large,  highly- developed  wings, 
they  fly  rapidly  away  on  the  slightest  noise. 

They  inhabit  the  south  of  Europe,  the  whole  of  Africa  from 
north  to  south,  America  in  the  same  latitudes  as  Europe, 
the  whole  of  the  centre  and  south  of  Asia,  New  Holland,  and 
the  islands  of  Oceania.  The  Cicada,  which  in  hot  climates 
always  exposes  itself  to  the  ardour  of  the  most  scorching  sun, 
is  not  found  in  temperate  or  cold  regions.  The  consequence 


Fig.  81.— Larva  of  the  Cicada.  Fig.  82.— Pupa  of  the  Cicada. 

is  that  the  southern  nations  know  it  very  well,  whilst  in  the 
north  the  large  green  grasshopper,  which  is  so  common  in  those 
regions,  and  whose  song  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Cicada,  is 
commonly  taken  for  it.  There  was  to  be  seen  at  the  Exhibition 
of  Fine  Arts  in  1866  a  picture  by  M.  Aussandon,  "  La  Cigale  et 
la  Fourmi,"  which  showed  under  an  allegorical  shape  the  subject 
of  La  Fontaine's  fable.  The  painter  here  represented  the  Cigale, 
or  Cicada,  under  the  form  of  a  magnificent  apple-green  grass- 
hopper. The  artist  materialised  here,  as  we  may  say,  the 
common  mistake  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  north,  which  makes 
them  confound  the  Cicada  with  the  great  green  grasshopper. 

For  the  rest,  we  may,  by-the-bye,  say  that  La  Fontaine's 
fable  of  "  La  Cigale  et  la  Fourmi  "  is  full  of  errors  in  natural 
history.  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  prove  the  truth  of  this  asser- 
tion. From  the  very  first  verses,  the  author  shows  that  he  has 
never  observed  the  animal  of  which  he  speaks. 

"  La  Cigale  ay  ant  chante 
Tout  1'ete." 

No  Cicada  could  sing  "  tout  1'ete,"  since  it  lives  at  the  utmost 
for  a  few  weeks  only. 

"  Se  trouva  fort  depourvue 
Quand  la  bise  fut  venue." 

"  Quand  la  bise  fut  venue  "  means  without  doubt  the  month  of 


110  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

November  or  of  December.  But  at  this  season  of  the  year  the 
Cicada  has  a  long  time  since  passed  from  life  to  death.  When 
one  wanders  along  the  outskirts  of  woods  as  early  as  the  month 
of  October,  in  the  south  of  France,  one  finds  the  soil  covered  with 
dead  Cicadas.  La  Fontaine's  Cigale  then  could  not  have  found 
itself  "  fort  depourvue,"  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  was  already 
dead. 

"  Elle  alia  crier  famine 
Chez  la  Fourmi,  sa  voisine, 
La  priant  de  lui  preter 
Quelque  grain  pour  subsister." 

The  ant  is  carnivorous,  and  although  it  likes  honey,  it  has 
nothing  to  do  with  a  grain  of  wheat,  nor  with  any  other  grain,  of 
which,  according  to  the  fabulist,  it  had  laid  up  a  stock.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Cicada,  which  he  blames  for  having 

"  Pas  un  seul  petit  morceau 
De  mouche  on  de  vermisseau," 

never  dreamt  of  such  victuals,  for  it  lives  entirely  on  the  sap  of 
large  vegetables.  The  fables  of  the  poet,  who  is  called  in  France, 
one  never  knows  why,  "La  bon  la  Fontaine,"  swarm  with  errors 
of  the  same  kind  as  those  we  have  just  pointed  out.  The  habits 
of  animals  are  nearly  always  represented  as  exactly  the  contrary 
to  what  they  really  are.  To  initiate  himself  into  the  mysteries  of 
the  habits  of  animals,  La  Fontaine  certainly  had  neither  the  works 
of  Bufibn  nor  the  memoirs  of  Reaumur,  which  had  not  then  been 
written ;  but  had  he  not  the  book  of  Nature  ? 

But  it  is  time  to  mention  the  principal  species  of  the  Cicada. 
We  will  describe  two  ;  that  of  the  Ash,  which  lives  on  those  trees 
in  the  south  of  France,  and  that  of  the  Manna  Ash,  which  is  very 
common  in  the  south-east  of  France.  It  is  particularly  plentiful 
in  the  forests  of  pines  which  abound  between  Bayonne  and  Bor- 
deaux. It  is  on  these  two  species  of  Cicada  that  Reaumur  made 
the  beautiful  observations  of  which  we  gave  a  summary  above. 

The  Cicada  plebeia  or  Tettigoniafraxini,  very  common  in  Pro- 
vence, is  found,  though  rarely,  in  the  forest  of  Fontainbleau, 
occasionally  in  La  Brie.  It  is  of  a  grey  yellow  below,  black 
above  ;  the  head  and  thorax  are  marked  or  striped  with  black. 


HEMIPTERA.  Ill 

M.  Solier,  in  a  memoir  inserted  in  the  "  Annales  de  la  Societe 
Entomologique  de  France,"  says  that  its  song,  very  loud  and  very 
piercing,  seems  formed  of  one  single  note,  repeated  with  rapidity, 
which  insensibly  grows  weaker  after  a  certain  time,  and  terminates  in 
a  kind  of  whistle,  which  can  be  partly  imitated  by  pronouncing  the 
two  consonants  st,  and  which  resembles  the  noise  of  the  air  coming- 
out  of  a  little  opening  in  a  compressed  bladder.  When  the  Cicada 
sings,  it  moves  its  abdomen  violently,  in  such  a  manner  as  alter- 
nately to  move  it  away  and  to  bring  it  near  to  the  little  covers  of 
the  sonorous  cavities  ;  to  this  movement  is  added  a  slight  trembling 
of  the  mesothorax. 

The  same  entomologist  relates  a  very  interesting  observation 
made  on  this  species  of  Cicada  by  his  friend,  M.  Boyer,  a  chemist 
at  Aix,  and  which  he  himself  verified.  The  Cicadae,  in  general, 
are  very  timid,  and  fly  away  at  the  least  noise.  However,  when  a 
Cicada  is  singing  one  can  approach  it,  whistling  the  while  in  a 
quavering  manner,  and  imitaticg  as  nearly  as  possible  its  cry ;  but 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  predominate  over  it.  The  insect  then 
descends  a  small  space  down  the  tree,  as  if  to  approach  the 
whistler ;  then  it  stops.  But  if  one  present  a  stick  to  it,  continu- 
ing to  whistle,  the  Cicada  settles  on  it  and  begins  again  to  descend 
backwards.  From  time  to  time  it  stops,  as  if  to  listen.  At  last, 
attracted,  and,  as  it  were,  fascinated  by  the  harmony  of  the  whistle, 
it  comes  to  the  observer  himself. 

M.  Boyer  managed  thus  to  make  a  Cicada,  which  continued  to 
sing  as  long  as  he  whistled  in  harmony  with  it,  settle  on  his  nose. 
Charmed  by  this  concert,  the  insect  seemed  to  have  lost  its 
natural  timidity. 

The  Cicada  orni  is  of  a  greenish  yellow,  spotted  with  black. 
The  abdomen  is  encircled  by  the  same  colours.  The  elytra 
and  the  wings  are  hyaline,  or  glassy,  and  their  veins  alternately 
yellow  and  brown.  The  legs  are  yellow  throughout.  The  song 
of  this  species  is  hoarse,  and  cannot  be  heard  at  any  great 
distance. 

M.  Solier,  in  the  work  we  quoted  just  now,  says  that  the  song 
of  this  Cicada  is  of  a  deeper  intonation,  but  that  it  is  quick  and  is 
sooner  over.  It  does  not  terminate  in  the  manner  which  charac- 
terises that  of  the  other  species. 


112 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


Next  the  genus  Cicada  comes  Fulgora,  whose  type  is  the  Fulgora 
laternaria,  or  Lantern  Fly  (Fig.  83). 

Belonging  to  South  America,  these  insects  are  above  all  remark- 


able and  easy  to  recognise,  by  their  very  large  elongated  head, 
which  nearly  equals  three-quarters  of  the  rest  of  the  body.  This 
prolongation  is  horizontal,  vesiculous,  enlarged  to  about  the  same 


HEMIPTEEA.  113 

breadth  as  the  head,  and  presents  above  a  very  great  gibbosity.  The 
antennae  are  short,  with  a  second  globulous  articulation,  and  a 
small  terminal  hair.  The  species  represented  in  Fig.  83  is  yellow, 
varied  with  black.  The  elytra  are  of  a  greenish  yellow,  sprinkled 
with  black  ;  the  wings,  of  the  same  colour,  have  at  the  extremity 
a  large  spot  resembling  an  eye,  which  is  surrounded  by  a 
brown  circle,  very  broad  in  front.  It  inhabits  Guyana.  This 
remarkable  insect  enjoys  a  great  renown  with  the  vulgar,  by  a 
peculiarity  which  may  be  called  its  speciality — the  property  of 
shining  by  night  or  in  the  dark.  Hence  its  name  of  Fulgora 
laternaria. 

The  knowledge  of  the  Fulgora  laternaria  has  been  spread  and 
popularised  in  Europe  by  a  celebrated  book,  which  has  for  its  title, 
"Metamorphoses  des  Insectes  de  Surinam."  This  book,  which 
contains  the  result  of  patient  study  of  the  natural  history  of 
Dutch  Guyana  (Government  of  Surinam),  was  written  and  pub- 
lished in  three  languages,  by  a  woman  whose  name  this  work  has 
rendered  immortal — Mile.  Sybille  de  Marian,  and  who  won  the 
admiration  and  respect  of  her  contemporaries  by  her  love  of  the 
beauties  of  nature,  and  her  perseverance  in  making  them  known 
and  admired.  Sybille  de  Merian  was  born  at  Bale.  Daughter, 
sister,  and  mother  of  celebrated  engravers,  herself  an  excellent 
flower-painter,  she  had  worked  a  long  time  at  Frankfort  and 
at  Nuremburg ;  and  had  read  with  the  greatest  attention  the 
"  Theologie  des  Insectes,"*  and  with  admiration  Malpighi's  book 
on  the  silkworm.  Full  of  enthusiasm  for  the  study  of  natural  his- 
tory, she  left  Germany,  to  visit  the  magnificent  collection  of  plants 
which  were  kept  in  the  hot-houses  of  Holland,  and  made  admirable 
reproductions  of  them  with  her  pencil. 

This  attentive  study  of  the  vegetable  world  suggested  to  her  the 
idea,  which  soon  became  an  ardent  desire,  of  observing  these 
marvels  of  nature  in  those  parts  of  the  globe  in  which  they  display 
themselves  with  the  greatest  magnificence  and  splendour.  At  the 
age  of  fifty-four,  Sybille  de  Marian  set  out  for  equatorial  America. 
From  the  very  first  days  of  her  arrival  she  hazarded  her  life,  some- 
times without  a  guide,  in  the  swampy  plains  or  burning  valleys  of 

*  "  Theologie  des  Insectes,  ou  Demonstration  des  Perfections  de  Dieu  dans  tout  ce 
qui  concerne  les  Insectes,  par  Lesser,  traduit  en  francais."  La  Haye,  1742. 

I 


114  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

Guyana.  During  the  two  years  she  sojourned  in  these  dangerous 
parts,  she  made  a  large  collection  of  drawings  and  paintings,  which 
were  destined  to  inaugurate  in  Europe  the  introduction  of  art  into 
natural  history. 

In  the  plates  to  her  work,  Sybille  de  Merian  represents  always 
the  insect  she  wishes  to  describe  under  its  three  forms  of  larva, 
pupa,  and  perfect  insect.  "With  this  drawing  she  gives  another  of 
the  plants  which  serve  the  insect  for  food,  as  also  of  the  animals 
which  prey  on  it.  Each  plate  is  a  little  drama.  Near  the  insect 
is  seen  the  greedy  lizard  opening  its  dreadful  mouth,  or  the  fero- 
cious spider  watching  for  it.  The  short  life  of  insects  is  shown 
here  in  its  entirety,  with  its  continual  struggles,  its  infinite  artifices, 
its  rapid  end,  and  all  the  episodes  of  its  existence,  for  which 
life,  as  in  the  case  of  the  moral  man,  is  but  a  long  and  painful 
struggle. 

Such  was  the -work,  such  were  the  noble  devotion  and  the  worthy 
career  of  Sybille  de  Merian.  Let  women,  let  young  girls,  who  are 
martyrs  to  the  ennui  of  a  life  devoid  of  occupation,  peruse  her 
beautiful  book,  and  learn  from  it  how  much  a  woman  may  do 
with  the  time  which  is  now  either  utterly  unoccupied  or  only 
devoted  to  useless  employments.  To  study  nature,  in  any  of 
its  phases,  ought,  it  seems  to  us,  to  give  more  satisfaction  to  the 
soul,  more  strength  to  the  mind,  and  cause  more  admiration  and 
gratitude  for  the  supreme  Author  of  nature,  than  doing  a  little 
embroidery. 

It  is,  as  we  have  already  said,  in  the  work  of  Sybille  de  Merian, 
"  Metamorphoses  des  Insectes  de  Surinam,"  that  one  finds  mentioned 
for  the  first  time  the  luminous  properties  of  the  Fulgora  laternaria. 
The  author  thus  relates  her  observations,  which  were  the  result  of 
chance : — 

"Some  Indians  having  one  day  brought  me  a  great  number 
of  the  Lantern  flies,  I  shut  them  up  in  a  large  box,  not  know- 
ing then  that  they  gave  light  at  night.  Hearing  a  noise,  I 
sprang  out  of  bed  and  had  a  candle  brought.  I  very  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  noise  proceeded  from  the  box,  which  I  hurriedly 
opened ;  but,  alarmed  at  seeing  emerging  from  it  a  flame,  or,  to 
speak  more  correctly,  as  many  flames  as  there  were  insects,  I  at 
first  let  it  fall.  Having  recovered  from  my  astonishment,  or  rather 


HEMIPTEEA.  115 

from  my  fright,  I  caught  all  my  insects  again,  and  admired  this 
singular  property  of  theirs." 

Since  the  time  when  Mile  de  Merian  visited  Guyana,  differ- 
ent travellers  have  said  that  they  could  not  observe,  as  she  did, 
this  phosphorescent  phenomenon.  It  is,  then,  probable  that  this 
property  only  exists  in  the  male  or  female  insect,  and  then  only 
at  certain  seasons. 

What  a  marvellous  spectacle  must  the  rich  valleys  of  Guyana 
present,  when  in  the  stillness  of  the  night  the  air  is  filled  with 
living  torches ;  when  the  Fulgorce  flying  about  in  space  the  flashes 
of  fire  cross  each  other,  go  out  and  blaze  up  again,  shine  brightly 
and  then  die  out,  and  present,  on  a  calm  evening,  the  appear- 
ance of  those  lightning  flashes  which  only  show  themselves 
generally  in  the  sky  ! 

Let  us  now  go  on  to  another  interesting  insect  of  the  order  of 
which  we  are  treating,  the  Aphrophora,  without  being  frightened 
by  its  disagreeable  name,  for  there  are  many  other  names  we  may 
give  it  if  we  choose,  among  those  by  which  it  is  popularly  known. 
In  the  months  of  June  and  July,  one  sees  on  nearly  every  tree 
and  on  plants  of  the  most  different  kinds  a  sort  of  white  froth, 
composed  of  air  bubbles,  deposited  on  the  leaves  and  branches. 
It  is  produced  by  an  insect  which  the  peasants  in  France  call, 
Crachat  de  Coucou,  and  which  is  called  in  England,  Cuckoo's 
spittle,  or,  ~&cume  printaniere  (spring  froth).  De  Geer  carefully 
studied  the  metamorphoses  of  this  insect.  The  Aphrophora  (from 
a^po's,  foam,  and  <£<#<*>,  I  bear  or  carry)  is  lodged  in  the  froth  of 
which  we  have  just  been  speaking.  It  lives  in  it,  only  leaving  it 
when  it  has  its  wings.  De  Geer  wondered  why  this  insect  con- 
fines itself  during  the  whole  of  its  life  in  liquid,  and  concludes 
that  the  froth  has  the  effect  of  protecting  the  insect  from  the 
burning  heat  of  the  sun.  This  covering  seems  also  to  protect  it 
from  the  attacks  of  carnivorous  insects  and  spiders.  On  the  other 
hand,  its  skin  is  without  doubt  so  constituted  that  it  would  perspire 
too  freely  if  it  were  exposed  to  the  air,  and  the  inseet  would  very 
soon  die  dried  up.  Whatever  explanation  may  be  given  of  the 
necessity  for  this  semi- aerial,  semi-liquid  medium,  it  is  easy  to 
verify  the  fact  that  the  larva  of  the  Aphrophora  cannot  live  long 
out  of  its  frothy  envelope.  If  withdrawn  from  it,  the  volume  of 

i  2 


116  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

its  body  diminishes  perceptibly,  and  tbe  poor  animal  dies,  like  a 
fish  taken  out  of  its  natural  element. 

The  insects  which  live  in  this  froth  are  six-legged  grubs  (Fig.  84), 
which,  when  the  froth  is  cleared  from  them,  walk 
quickly  enough  on  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  plants. 
They  are  green,  with  the  belly  yellow. 

De  Geer  wished  to  know  how  they  produced  this 
singular  froth,  and  found  out  in  the  following  man- 
ner : — He  took  one  of  them  out  of  its  frothy  dwelling, 
wiped  it  dry  with  a  camel's  hair  pencil,  and  placed 
it  on  a»  young  stalk,  recently  cut  from  the  honey- 
suckle, which  he  put  into  water  in  a  glass,  in  order 
to  preserve  its  freshness,  and  this  is  what  he  observed : — 

"  It  begins,"  says  the  Swedish  naturalist,  "by  fixing  itself  on  a 
certain  part  of  the  stalk,  in  which  it  inserts  the  end  of  its  trunk, 
and  remains  thus  for  a  long  time  in  the  same  attitude,  occupied 
in  sucking  and  filling  itself  with  the  sap.  Having  then  with- 
drawn its  trunk,  it  remains  there,  or  else  places  itself  on  a  leaf, 
where,  after  different  reiterated  movements  of  its  abdomen,  which 
it  raises  or  lowers  and  turns  on  all  sides,  one  may  see  coming  out 
of  the  hinder  part  of  its  body  a  little  ball  of  liquid,  which  it  causes 
to  slip  along,  bending  it  under  its  body.  Beginning  again  the 
same  movements,  it  is  not  long  in  producing  a  second  ball  of 
liquid,  filled  with  air  like  the  first,  which  it  places  side  by  side 
with,  and  close  to,  the  preceding  one,  and  continues  the  same 
operation  as  long  as  there  remains  any  sap  in  its  body.  It  is 
very  soon  covered  with  a  number  of  small  balls,  which,  coming 
out  of  its  body  one  after  the  other,  tend  towards  the  front  part, 
aided  in  this  by  the  movement  of  the  abdomen.  It  is  all  these 
balls  collected  together  which  form  a  white  and  extremely  fine 
froth,  whose  viscosity  keeps  the  air  shut  up  in  the  globules,  and 
prevents  its  froth  from  easily  evaporating.  If  the  sap  which  the 
nympha  has  drawn  from  the  plant  is  exhausted  before  it  feels  itself 
sufficiently  covered  with  froth,  it  begins  afresh  to  suck,  until  it 
has  got  a  new  and  sufficient  quantity  of  froth,  which  it  takes  care 
to  add  to  its  first  stock/'* 

*  "  Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  des  Insectes,"  tome  iii. 


HEMIPTEEA.  117 

It  is  in  the  froth  that  the  larvae  change  into  pupae,  and  do  not  leave 
their  habitation  to  undergo  their  final  metamorphosis.  They  have 
then,  says  De  Geer,  the  art  of  causing  the  froth  inside  to  evaporate 
and  dry  up,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  space  inside  the  mass 
of  froth,  in  which  their  bodies  are  entirely  free.  The  exterior  froth 
forms  a  roof  closed  in  on  all  sides,  under  which  the  insect  lies 
quite  dry. 

In  this  vaulted  cell,  the  pupa  disengages  itself  little  by  little 
from  its  skin,  which  first  splits  up  along  the  head,  and  then  on 
the  thorax.  This  opening  is  sufficiently  large  to  enable  it  to 
come  out  of  its  envelope.  It  is  in  the  month  of  September  that 
these  insects  are  particularly  abundant,  when  the  trees  and  plants 
are  covered  with  them.  Sometimes  the  froth  drips  off,  like  a  sort 
of  small  rain,  from  branches  which  are  covered  with  it.  Towards 
the  autumn  the  females  are  gravid.  They  are  then  so  heavy, 
that  they  can  hardly  jump  or  fly.  The  males,  on  the  contrary, 
make  prodigious  bounds;  they  throw  themselves  sometimes 
forward  to  a  distance  of  more  than  two  yards.  They  are  very 
difficult  to  catch,  and  still  more  difficult  to  find  again  when  one 
has  once  let  them  escape.  And  so  Swammerdam  calls  these  in- 
sects Sauterelles- Puces  (Flea- Grasshoppers), 
because  they  jump  like  fleas. 

All  that  we  have  said  relates  to  the  Cercopis 
spumaria,  or  Froghopper  (Fig.  85),  an  insect 
common  all  over  Europe,  and  which  Geoflroy 
calls  the  Cigale  bedeaude. 

"It  is  of  a  brown  colour,"  says  Geoffroy,  "  often  rather  greenish. 
Its  head,  its  thorax,  and  its  elytra,  are  finely  dotted  ;  on  these  last 
one  sees  two  white  oblong  spots.  The  lower  part  of  the  insect 
is  light  brown." 

We  will  mention,  as  it  belongs  to  the  group  with  which  we  are 
now  occupied,  a  noxious  insect,  the  Jassus  devastatans,  which  since 
1844  seems  to  have  taken  up  its  quarters  in  the  commune  of  Saint 
Paul,  in  the  department  of  the  Basses-Alpes.  It  sucks  the 
leaves  and  stalks  of  cereals,  causing  them  to  wither,  and  may  be 
found  even  in  winter  on  young  corn,  but  principally  in  the  spring. 

*  "  Histoire  abregee  des  Insectes,  dans  laquelle  ces  animaux  sont  ranges  dans  un 
ordre  methodique."  In  4to,  au  VII.  de  la  Republique,  tome  i.  p.  416. 


118 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


According  to  M.  Guerin-Meneville,  its  head  is  of  an  ochrey  yellow, 
with  the  apex  marked  with  black  spots ;  the  forehead  yellow, 
elongated,  striped  with  black,  as  are  the  legs.  The  elytra  are 
straw-coloured  and  spotted  with  brown.  The  wings  are  trans- 
parent, and  slightly  blackened  at  the  extremities.  This  redoubt- 
able insect,  which  is  not  more  than  the  twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length, 
jumps  and  flies  with  great  ease. 


1.  Hypsauchenia  balista. 

2.  Membracis  foliata. 


Fig.  86. 

3.  Centrotus  cornutus 

4.  TJmbonia  spinosa. 


5,  Bocydium  globulare. 

6.  Cyphonia  furcata. 


In  the  damp  parts  of  woods  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of 
Europe,  particularly  on  the  upper  parts  of  fern  stalks,  on  sallow- 
wort,  and  thistles,  one  sees  springing,  with  remarkable  vigour,  a 
small  brownish  insect,  whose  strange  appearance  struck  Geoifroy, 
the  historian  of  the  insects  of  the  environs  of  Paris. 


HEMIPTEEA.  119 

Geoffrey  calls  this  insect  "  le  Petit  Diable."  "  Le  Petit  Diable," 
says  he,  "is  of  a  dark  blackish-brown.  Its  head  is  flat,  projecting 
but  slightly,  and,  as  it  were,  bent  downwards.  Its  thorax,  which  is 
rather  broad,  has  two  sharp  horns,  which  terminate  in  pretty  long 
points  on  the  sides.  In  the  middle  of  the  thorax  is  a  crest  or 
comb,  which,  prolonged  into  a  sort  of  sinuous  and  crooked  horn, 
terminates  in  a  very  sharp  point,  reaching  to  within  one  quarter 
of  the  extremity  of  the  wing-cases.  These — viz.,  the  wing  cases 
— are  dark,  with  brown  veins,  and  the  wings,  shorter  than  their 
cases,  are  rather  transparent.  It  jumps  very  well,  and  it  is  not 
easy  to  catch  it."  * 

The  Petit  Diable  of  Geoffroy  is  the  Centrotus  cornutus  of  modern 
naturalists.  This  curious  little  insect  belongs  to  a  strange  and 
remarkable  group,  whose  thorax  takes  the  most  extraordinary  and 
most  varied  forms,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  86,  which  represents, 
somewhat  magnified,  many  of  these  insects.  Nearly  all  inhabit 
Guyana,  the  Brazils,  and  the  islands  of  Florida. 

We  will  now  examine  one  of  the  most  interesting  groups  to 
study  from  different  points  of  view  —  that  of  the  Plant-lice. 
These  insects  have  for  a  long  time  attracted  the  attention  of 
observers.  They  are  so  abundant  that  all  our  readers  have  seen 
them,  and  there  are  few  plants  in  our  fields  or  gardens  which  do 
not  nourish  some  species.  How  often  does  one  hesitate  in  gather- 
ing a  rose  or  a  bit  of  honeysuckle,  for  fear  of  touching  the  unat- 
tractive guest  of  those  charming  flowers  ! 

During  the  whole  of  the  summer,  one  sees  on  the  branches,  on 
the  leaves,  but  principally  on  the  young  shoots  of  the  rose-tree, 


Figs.  87,  88.  -Winged  Aphides,  or  Plant-lice  (magnified). 

large  companies  of  green  plant-lice,  which  subsist  on  the  sap  of 
the  tree.     Some  are  provided  with  wings  (Figs.  87,  88),  others  are 

*  "  Histoire  abregea  des  Insectes,  dans  laquelle  ces  animaux  sont  ranges  dans  un 
ordre  methodique."     In  4to,  an  VII.  de  la  Republique,  tome  i.  p.  423. 


120  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

wingless  (Fig.  89,  90).    The  last-named  are  the  largest :  and  are  a 
line  and  a  half  long.     They  are  entirely  green,  except  two  parts, 


Figs.  89,  90.— Wingless  Aphides,  or  Plant-lice  (magnified). 

of  which  we  will  speak  immediately.  The  body  is  oval ;  the  head 
is  small,  and  furnished  with  two  brown  eyes.  The  skin  smooth, 
and  tight  drawn  over  the  body.  The  antennae,  which  are  very 
long  and  slender,  almost  exceed  the  body  in  length.  The  six  legs 
are  long  and  slim,  and  the  feet  terminated  in  two  hooks,  short. 
On  the  upper  part  of  the  body  are  two  small  cylindrical  horns, 
surmounted  by  a  small  button.  The  antennae  and  these  horns 
are  black. 

The  winged  individuals  are  of  the  same  size  as  these,  but  of  a 
dark  green,  mixed  with  black.  The  wings  are  transparent,  the 
upper  ones  as  long  again  as  the  body.  The  young  shoots  of  the 
elder-tree  are  often  covered  with  black  plant-lice,  or  with 
those  of  a  greenish-black  colour,  all  round  their  circumference 
for  the  length  of  from  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a  half.  They  are 
crowded  one  against  the  other,  and  sometimes  there  are  two  layers 
of  them. 

If  observed  without  moving  the  plant  about,  they  appear  to  be 
tranquil  and  inactive.  They  are,  however,  then  absorbing  from 
the  plant  the  nourishment  it  should  have  ;  piercing  with  the 
point  of  their  trunks  the  epidermis  of  the  leaves  or  stalks,  and 
drawing  from  them  a  nourishing  liquid. 

But  this  occupation  is  confined  to  those  which  are  on  the  plant 
itself.  Those  which,  on  account  of  the  enormous  agglomeration 
of  these  insects,  walk,  not  on  the  branch,  but  on  other  plant-lice, 
and  cannot  therefore  suck  the  sap  of  the  plant,  are  employed 
entirely  in  preserving  and  multiplying  their  species. 

Reaumur  often  saw  the  latter,  easily  recognised  by  their  great 
size,  giving  birth  to  little  plant-lice,  which  are  quite  alive  when 


HEMIPTEEA.  121 

they  leave  their  mother.  The  young  ones  set  off  and  mount  or 
descend  till  they  reach  one  end  of  the  crowd,  and  there  each 
takes  up  its  position,  like  a  cardboard  capucin  (capucin  de  carte), 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  head  is  just  behind  the  plant-louse 
which  precedes  it.  There  they  bury  their  trunks  in  the  vegetable 
tissue,  and  set  to  work  to  imbibe  the  sap. 

Small  as  is  the  trunk  of  the  plant-louse,  yet  when  there  are 
thousands  of  those  little  beings  fixed  to  the  stalk  or  the  leaves  of 
a  plant,  it  is  evident  that  it  must  suffer.  And  so  the  plant- 
louse  is,  in  truth,  one  of  the  most  terrible  enemies  of  our  agricul- 
tural and  horticultural  productions,  and  the  exact  list  of  the 
ravages  which  it  occasions  would  be  indeed  interminable.  We 
will  confine  ourselves  to  a  few  examples.  For  some  years 
the  lime-tree  aphis  has  seriously  attacked  the  lime-trees  of  the 
public  promenades  of  Paris.  The  peach-tree  plant-louse 
causes  the  blight  of  the  leaves  of  that  tree.  It  is  to  these 
prolific  little  parasites  that  are  due,  in  a  great  number  of  cases, 
the  contortions  of  leaves  and  of  the  young  shoots  of  trees  of  all 
species. 

These  insatiable  depredators  cause  sometimes  a  still  more  re- 
markable alteration.  On  the  leaves  of  elms  one  sees  often  bladders, 
round  and  rosy,  like  pommes  d'api.  On  opening  these  bladders 
one  finds  that  they  are  inhabited  by  a  species  of  aphis.  On  the 
black  poplar  grow  galls  of  different  kinds,  some  from  the  leaf 
stalks,  and  others  from  the  young  stems.  They  are  rounded, 
oblong,  horned,  and  twisted  in  a  spiral.  Other  galls  show 
themselves  on  the  leaf  itself.  They  are  all  inhabited  by  plant- 
lice,  differing  from  those  of  which  we  have  given  a  descrip- 
tion above,  in  the  extremity  of  their  abdomen  not  presenting 
the  two  remarkable  horns  to  which  we  shall  have  later  to  call 
the  attention  of  the  reader.  The  body  is  generally  covered 
with  a  long  and  thick  down. 

Of  this  genus,  the  species,  alas !  so  unfortunately  celebrated  is 
the  Apple-tree  Aphis  (Myzoxylus  mali),  which  attacks  that  tree. 
This  insect  is  of  a  dark  russet  brown,  with  the  upper  part  of  the 
abdomen  covered  with  very  long  white  down.  Its  presence  was 
announced  for  the  first  time  in  England  in  1789,  and  in  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  C6tes-du-Nord,  in  1812.  In  1818  it  was' 


122  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

found  in  Paris,  in  the  garden  of  the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie.  It  had 
become  common  in  1822  in  the  departments  of  the  Seine,  the 
Somme,  and  the  Aisne.  In  1827,  its  presence  in  Belgium  was 
announced. 

The  apple-tree  aphis,  according  to  M.  Blot,  can  only  exist  on 
that  tree.  Carried  away  and  placed  on  any  other,  it  very  soon 
perishes.  It  does  not  attack  the  blossom,  the  fruit,  nor  the 
leaves,  but  fixes  itself  on  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk,  whence  it 
propagates  itself  downwards  as  far  as  the  roots,  underneath  the 
graftings,  &c.  It  also  likes  to  lodge  in  cracks  of  the  trunk  and 
large  branches.  But  it  always  looks  out  for  a  southern,  and 
avoids  a  northern  aspect.  It  is  not  active,  walks  very  little,  and 
its  dissemination  from  one  place  to  another  can  only  be  explained 
by  the  facility  with  which  so  small  an  insect  can  be  transported 
by  the  wind,  its  lightness  being  still  more  increased  by  the  down 
which  covers  it. 

The  Myzoxylus  mali  renders  the  wood  knotty,  dry,  hard,  brittle, 
and  brings  on  rapidly  all  the  symptoms  which  characterise  old 
age  and  decay  in  attacked  trees.  M.  Blot  recommends  the  fol- 
lowing means  for  preserving  the  apple-trees  from  this  insect : 
Employ  for  the  seed  beds  the  pips  of  bitter  apples  only ;  give  to 
the  nursery  and  to  the  plants  only  as  much  shelter  as  is  absolutely 
necessary  ;  avoid  those  sites  which  are  too  low  and  too  damp  ; 
encourage  the  circulation  of  air,  and  the  desiccation  of  the  soil ; 
surround  the  foot  of  each  apple-tree  with  a  mixture  of  soot  or  of 
tobacco  and  fine  sand. 

As  for  the  manner  of  freeing  a  tree  once  invaded  by  this  insect, 
the  most  simple  plan  is  to  rub  the  trunk  and  the  branches,  in 
order  to  crush  the  insects,  or  to  employ  a  brush  or  broom. 

We  spoke  above  of  the  reproduction  of  the  aphis,  but  without 
entering  into  any  particular  details  :  we  will  now  touch  upon  this 
question,  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  natural  history. 

It  was  at  the  time  when  Reaumur  was  writing  his  immortal 
"  Histoire  des  Insectes,"  when  Tremblay  was  publishing  his  ad- 
mirable researches  on  the  freshwater  Hydra,  whose  prodigious 
vitality  we  have  mentioned  in  our  work  on  Zoophytes  and 
Molluscs,*  that  another  naturalist  astonished  the  learned  world 

*  "  The  Ocean  World."     London  :  Chapman  and  Hall,  1?68.— ED. 


HEMIPTEEA.  123 

by  his  experiments  on  the  reproduction  of  plant-lice.  This 
naturalist,  whose  name  will  live  quite  as  long  as  those  of 
Reaumur  and  of  Tremblay,  was  Charles  Bonnet,  of  Geneva. 

Charles  Bonnet  made  the  extraordinary  discovery  that  aphides 
can  increase  and  multiply  without  copulation.  An  isolated  speci- 
men can  produce  a  series  of  generations  of  its  kind.  We  will 
relate  the  curious  experiments  of  the  Genevese  naturalist.  He 
placed  in  a  flower-pot,  filled  with  mould,  a  phial  full  of  water,  and 
put  into  this  phial  a  little  branch  of  spindle,  having  only  five  or 
six  leaves,  and  perfectly  free  from  any  insect.  On  one  of  these 
leaves  he  placed  a  plant-louse,  which  was  born  under  his  own  eyes, 
of  a  wingless  mother.  He  then  covered  the  branch  with  a  glass 
shade,  whose  rim  fitted  exactly  into  the  top  of  the  flower-pot. 
Having  taken  these  precautions,  Charles  Bonnet  was  perfectly  cer- 
tain of  being  able  to  observe  his  prisoner  at  his  ease.  He  could 
keep  it  under  his  eye  and  under  his  hand,  with  more  certitude  and 
security  than  was  the  mythological  Danae,  shut  up,  by  order  of 
Acrisius,  in  a  tower  of  bronze. 

"  I  took  care,"  says  Charles  Bonnet,  "  to  keep  a  correct  journal 
of  the  life  of  my  insect.  I  noted  down  its  least  movements ; 
nothing  it  did  seemed  to  me  indifferent.  Not  only  did  I  observe 
it  every  day  from  hour  to  hour,  beginning  generally  at  four  or 
five  o'clock  in  this  morning,  and  only  leaving  off  at  about  nine 
or  ten  at  night ;  but  I  even  looked  many  times  in  the  same  hour, 
and  always  with  the  magnifying  glass,  to  render  my  observation 
more  exact,  and  to  learn  the  most  secret  actions  of  my  little  lonely 
one.  But  if  this  continual  application  cost  me  some  trouble,  and 
bored  me  not  a  little,  in  amends  I  had  some  cause  for  self-applause 

and  for  having  subjected  myself  to  all  this  trouble My 

plant-louse  changed  its  skin  four  times, — on  the  23rd,  in  the 
evening ;  on  the  26th  at  two  in  the  afternoon ;  on  the  29th  at 
seven  o'clock  in  the  morning;  and  on  the  31st  at  about  seven 

o'clock  in  the  evening Happily  delivered  from  these  four 

illnesses  through  which  it  was  obliged  to  pass,  it  at  last  reached 
that  point  to  which,  by  my  care,  I  had  been  trying  to  bring  it. 
It  had  become  a  perfect  plant-louse.  On  the  1st  of  June,  at  about 
seven  o'clock  in  the  evening,  I  saw,  with  great  satisfaction,  that  it 
had  given  birth  to  another ;  from  that  time  I  thought  I  ought  to 


124  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

look  upon  it  as  a  female.  From  that  day  up  to  the  20th,  inclu- 
sive, she  produced  ninety-five  little  ones,  all  alive  and  doing 
well,  the  greatest  number  of  which  were  born  under  my  own 
eyes!"* 

He  very  soon  made  some  other  experiments  on  the  aphis  of  the 
elder-tree,  so  as  to  assure  himself  if  the  generations  of  plant-lice, 
reared  successively  in  solitude,  preserved  the  same  property  of 
procreating  without  copulation. 

"  On  the  12th  of  July,"  says  he,  "  about  three  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon,  I  shut  up  a  plant-louse  that  had  just  been  born 
under  my  eyes.  On  the  20th  of  the  same  month,  at  six  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  it  had  already  produced  three  little  ones.  But  I 
waited  till  the  22nd  towards  noon,  before  I  shut  up  a  plant-louse 
of  the  second  generation,  because  I  could  not  manage  earlier  to  be 
present  at  the  birth  of  one  of  those  produced  by  the  mother  I  had 
condemned  to  live  in  solitude.  I  always  continued  to  observe  the 
same  precaution.  I  shut  up  only  those  plant-lice  which  were  born 
under  my  very  eyes.  A  third  generation  began  on  the  1st  of 
August ;  it  was  on  this  day  that  the  plant-louse  I  had  shut  up 
on  the  22nd  of  July  gave  birth  to  this  generation.  On  the  4th  of 
August,  about  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  I  put  into  solitary 
confinement  a  plant-louse  of  the  third  generation.  On  the  9th  of 
the  same  month,  at  six  in  the  evening,  a  fourth  generation,  due 
to  this  last  one,  had  already  seen  the  light :  it  had  given  birth 
to  four  little  ones.  On  the  same  day,  towards  midnight,  all  com- 
merce with  its  own  species  was  forbidden  to  the  plant-louse  of  the 
fourth  generation,  born  at  that  hour.  On  the  18th,  between  six 
and  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning,  I  found  this  last  in  the  company 
of  four  little  ones,  to  which  it  had  given  birth. "f 

In  this  case,  the  want  of  food  caused  the  death  of  the  isolated 
individual  of  the  fifth  generation,  and  the  experiment  was  brought 
to  a  close. 

Bonnet  then  tried  experiments  on  the  plantain  aphis,  following 
them  up  during  five  consecutive  generations,  which  succeeded  each 
other  without  interruption,  in  the  space  of  three  months. 

*  Traite  d'Insectologie,  ou  Observations  sur  les  Pucerons ;"   Ire  partie,  ISmo, 
Paris,  1745,  pp.  28—38. 
f  Ibid.  pp.  67—69. 


HEMIPTEEA.  125 

After  having  stated  the  extraordinary  facts,  which  he  relates 
with  the  most  perfect  simplicity,  Charles  Bonnet,  examining  at 
the  end  of  the  fine  season  specimens  of  the  winged  oak-tree  aphis, 
was  able  to  be  present  at  their  nuptials.  He  preserved  the  females 
with  great  care,  and  saw,  not  without  profound  astonishment,  that 
they  gave  birth,  not  to  small  living  insects,  as  was  the  case  in  the 
first  experiments,  but  to  eggs  of  a  reddish  colour,  which  were 
stuck  fast  to  each  other,  on  the  stem  or  stalk  of  the  plant. 

A  short  time  afterwards,  this  illustrious  observer  was  able  to 
convince  himself  that  the  oak-tree  plant-lice,  whose  nuptials  he 
had  witnessed  in  the  autumn,  present  the  same  phenomena  of 
solitary  and  viviparous  propagation,  already  so  often  mentioned 
by  him. 

At  last  some  new  observations  permitted  him  to  establish  beyond 
all  doubt  the  connection  of  these  facts,  in  appearance  so  contra- 
dictory. He  discovered  that,  during  the  whole  of  the  fine  season, 
the  plant-lice  are  solitary  and  viviparous,  but  that  towards  the 
autumn  these  creatures  return  to  the  ordinary  course  of  things, 
and  are  propagated  by  eggs,  whose  development  requires  the  co- 
operation of  a  male  and  female  individval.  These  eggs  are  hatched 
in  spring,  and  produce  only  viviparous  plant-lice.  In  the  autumn 
the  males  and  females  show  themselves,  and  from  that  moment 
ovipositing  recommences.  These  curious  facts,  seen  and  published 
more  than  a  century  ago,  have  been  verified  many  times  since. 

In  1866,  M.  Balbiani  asserted  that  the  plant-lice  are  herma- 
phrodite, or  of  both  sexes  at  the  same  time,  which  would  explain 
the  facts  observed  by  Charles  Bonnet.  But  the  anatomical  proofs 
appealed  to  by  Balbiani  in  support  of  this  idea  are  far  from  esta- 
blishing the  existence  of  this  arrangement  of  sexes  among  them. 
The  observations  of  Charles  Bonnet  produced  profound  astonishment 
among  naturalists,  and,  in  this  respect,  1743  may  be  considered  as 
a  memorable  year. 

The  simple  statement  of  the  few  experiments  which  he  made, 
and  which  we  have  cited,  has  sufficed  to  show  how  rapid  is  the 
multiplication  of  aphides.  A  single  female  produced  generally  90 
young  ones ;  at  the  second  generation  these  90  produce  8,100  ;  these 
give  a  third  generation,  which  amounts  to  729,000  insects ;  these, 
in  their  turn,  become  65,610,000 ;  the  fifth  generation,  consisting 


126  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

of  590,490,000,  will  yield  a  progeny  of  53,142,100,000 ;  at  the 
seventh,  we  shall  thus  have  4,782,789,000,000 ;  and  the  eighth 
will  give  441,461,010,000,000.  This  immense  number  increases 
immeasurably  when  there  are  eleven  generations  in  the  space  of  a 
year.  Fortunately  a  great  many  carnivorous  insects  wage  fierce 
war  against  the  plant-lice,  and  destroy  immense  numbers  of  them. 
Thus  they  are  kept  in  check,  and  prevented  from  multiplying 
inordinately.  To  show  with  what  prodigious  abundance  the  re- 
production of  these  little  but  formidable  parasites  must  go  on,  we 
will  relate  a  fact  which  was  made  known  to  us  by  M.  Morren, 
Professor  in  the  University  of  Liege. 

The  winter  of  1833 — 34  had  been  extremely  warm  and  dry  ; 
whole  months  had  passed  without  any  rain.  A  well-known  savant, 
Van  Mons,  had  foretold,  as  early  as  the  12th  of  May,  that  all  the 
vegetables  would  be  devoured  by  plant-lice.  On  the  28th  of 
September,  1834,  at  the  moment  when  the  cholera  had  began  to 
spread  its  ravages  over  Belgium,  all  of  a  sudden  a  swarm  of  plant- 
lice  showed  themselves  between  Bruges  and  Ghent.  They  were 
to  be  seen  the  next  day  at  Ghent,  hovering  about  in  troops,  in 
such  quantities  that  the  daylight  was  obscured.  Standing  on  the 
ramparts,  one  could  no  longer  distinguish  the  walls  of  the  houses 
in  the  town,  so  covered  were  they  with  plant- lice.  The  whole 
road  from  Antwerp  to  Ghent  was  rendered  black  by  innumerable 
legions  of  them.  They  appeared  everywhere  quite  suddenly. 
People  were  obliged  to  protect  their  eyes  with  spectacles  and  their 
faces  with  handkerchiefs,  to  keep  off  the  painful  and  disagreeable 
tickling  caused  by  them.  The  progress  of  these  insects  was  inter- 
rupted by  mountains,  hills,  even  by  undulations  of  land  of  very 
slight  elevation,  but  sufficient  to  have  an  influence  on  the  wind.  M. 
Morren  thinks  that  they  came  from  a  great  distance,  and  that  they 
arrived  in  Belgium  by  the  sea-coast.  Whatever  be  the  explana- 
tion of  the  phenomenon,  it  establishes  sufficiently  the  prodigious 
multiplication  of  these  little  insects. 

There  is  another  trait,  and  without  doubt  the  most  curious  in 
the  history  of  the  aphides,  to  which  we  have  still  to  call  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader  :  we  mean  the  relations  which  exist  between 
them  and  the  ants. 

No  one  can  have  failed  to  observe  ants  frequenting  those  places 


HEMIPTEEA.  127 

where  plant-lice  are  gathered  together  in  great  numbers.  Are 
ants  simply  friends  of  the  plant-lice,  as  thought  the  ancients  ?  Or 
have  their  visits  some  selfish  object  ? 

Linnaeus,  Bonnet,  and  Pierre  Huber  thought  .that  the  ants  did 
not  pay  these  visits  for  nothing,  and  that  they  had  some  object  in 
seeking  them.  But  what  could  they  have  to  ask  of  the  plant-lice  ? 
It  is  to  Pierre  Huber  we  owe  the  solution  of  this  mystery.  This 
naturalist  has  made  the  most  beautiful  observations  on  the  rela- 
tions which  exist  between  plant-lice  and  ants.  They  are  detailed 
in  a  chapter  of  his  admirable  work,  entitled  "  Hecherches  sur  les 
Moaurs  des  Fourmis  indigenes." 

The  plant-lice  have,  as  we  have  said,  at  the  extremity  of  their 
abdomen  two  small  movable  horns.  These  are  in  communication 
with  a  little  gland  which  produces  a  sugary  liquid.  When  one 
carefully  observes  plant- lice  attached  to  the  stem  of  a  plant,  one 
sees  a  little  syrupy  droplet  oozing  out  of  the  extremity  of  these 
tubes. 

M.  Morren,  who  has  made  some  interesting  observations  on  the 
anatomy  and  generation  of  the  aphis,  says  that,  having  shut 
up  females  in  wide-mouthed  glass  bottles,  he  saw  the  young, 
a  little  time  after  their  birth,  suck  the  sweet  juice  which  exudes 
from  the  little  tubes  at  the  extremity  of  the  mother's  abdomen. 
This  secretion  seems,  then,  destined  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
young  in  the  first  moments  of  their  existence,  before  they  are  able 
to  nourish  themselves  on  vegetable  juices.  The  saccharine  fluid 
produced  by  the  mother  must  be,  then,  a  sort  of  milk  intended  for 
the  nourishment  of  her  young.  This  being  established,  listen  to 
what  follows.  In  all  places  where  plant-lice  are  assembled  in  great 
numbers  it  is  easy  to  observe  how  excessively  fond  ants  are  of  the 
sugary  liquid  .destined  for  suckling  the  young.  But  how  do  the 
ants  manage  to  get  the  plant-lice  to  allow  themselves  to  be,  as  we 
may  say,  milked  ? 

"  It  had  been  already  noticed,"  says  this  celebrated  observer, 
"  that  the  ants  waited  for  the  moment  at  which  the  plant-lice  caused 
to  come  out  of  their  abdomen  this  precious  manna,  which  they  im- 
mediately seized.  But  I  discovered  that  this  was  the  least  of  their 
talents,  and  that  they  also  knew  how  to  manage  to  be  served  with 
this  liquid  at  will.  This  is  their  secret.  A  branch  of  a  thistle 


128  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

was  covered  with  brown  ants  and  plant-lice.  I  observed  the  latter 
for  some  time,  so  as  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  moment  when  they 
caused  this  secretion  to  issue  from  their  bodies ;  but  I  remarked 
that  it  very  rarely  came  out  of  its  own  accord,  and  that  the  plant- 
lice,  which  were  at  some  distance  from  the  ants,  squirted  it  out 
with  a  movement  resembling  a  kick. 

"  How  did  it  happen,  then,  that  the  ants  wandering  about  on 
the  thistle  were  nearly  all  remarkable  for  the  size  of  their  abdomens, 
and  were  evidently  full  of  some  liquid  ?  This  I  discovered  by 
narrowly  watching  one  ant,  whose  proceedings  I  am  going  to 
describe  minutely.  I  saw  it  at  first  passing,  without  stopping, 
over  some  plant-lice,  which  did  not  seem  in  the  least  disturbed 
by  its  walking  over  them;  but  it  soon  stopped  close  to  one 
of  the  smallest,  which  it  seemed  to  coax  with  its  antennse, 
touching  the  extremity  of  its  abdomen  very  rapidly,  first  with  one 
of  its  antennae  and  then  with  the  other.  I  saw  with  surprise  the 
liquid  come  out  of  the  body  of  the  plant-louse,  and  the  ant  forth- 
with seize  upon  the  droplet  and  convey  it  to  its  mouth.  It  then 
brought  its  antennae  to  bear  upon  another  plant-louse,  much  larger 
than  the  first ;  this  one,  caressed  in  the  same  manner,  yielded  the 
nourishing  fluid  from  its  body  in  a  much  larger  dose.  The  ant 
advanced  and  took  possession  of  it.  It  then  passed  to  a  third, 
which  it  cajoled  as  it  had  the  preceding  ones,  giving  it  many 
little  strokes  with  its  antennae  near  the  hinder  extremity  of  its 
body  ;  the  liquid  came  out  immediately,  and  the  ant  picked  it 

up A  small  number  of  these  repasts  are  sufficient  to  satisfy 

the  ant's  appetite. 

"It  does  not  appear  that  it  is  out  of  importunity  that  these 
insects  obtain  their  nourishment  of  the  plant-lice. 

"The  neighbourhood  of  ants  is  agreeable  to  plant-dice,,  since 
those  which  could  get  out  of  the  way  of  their  visits,  viz.,  the 
winged  plant-lice,  prefer  to  remain  amongst  them,  and  to  lavish 
upon  them  the  superabundance  of  their  nourishment."* 

What  we  have  just  related  applies  not  only  to  the  brown,  but 
also  to  the  tawny  ant,  to  the  ashy  black,  to  the  fuliginous,  and 
to  a  great  many  more. 

*  Recherches  sur  les  Moeurs  des  Fourmis  Indigenes.  Svo.]  [Paris,"  1810.  Pp. 
181—186. 


HEMIPTEEA.  129 

The  red  ant  is  singularly  adroit  in  seizing  the  droplet  left  it 
by  the  plant-louse.  According  to  Pierre  Huber,  it  employs  its 
antennae,  which  swell  somewhat  towards  their  extremities,  in  con- 
veying this  droplet  to  its  mouth,  and  causes  it  to  enter  it  by 
pressing  it  first  on  one  side,  then  on  the  other,  using  its  antennae 
as  if  they  were  fingers.  The  greater  number  of  ants  seek  them 
on  those  plants  on  which  they  usually  fix  themselves — the  lowest 
herbs,  as  well  as  on  the  highest  trees.  There  are  some,  however, 
which  never  leave  their  place  of  abode,  and  never  go  out  to  the 
chase.  These  are  the  little  ants,  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  rather 
transparent,  and  covered  with  hairs,  and  which  are  extremely 
numerous  in  our  meadows  and  orchards.  These  subterranean 
creatures  are  very  noxious  to  the  farmer.  Pierre  Huber  often 
wondered  how  they  subsisted,  and  with  what  food  they  could 
provision  themselves,  without  quitting  their  gloomy  habita- 
tions. Having  one  day  turned  up  the  earth  of  which  a  habi- 
tation was  composed,  in  order  to  discover  if  any  treasure  were  to 
be  found  stowed  away  there,  he  found  nothing  but  plant-lice.  Of 
these  the  greater  number  were  fixed  to  the  roots  of  the  trees 
which  hung  down  from  the  roof  of  their  subterranean  nest ; 
others  were  wandering  about  among  the  ants.  These  latter, 
moreover,  set  about  milking  their  nurses  as  usual,  and  with  the 
same  success.  To  verify  his  discovery,  he  dug  up  a  great  number 
of  nests  of  the  yellow  ant,  and  invariably  found  in  them  aphides. 
So  as  to  study  the  relations  which  must  exist  between  these 
insects,  he  shut  up  ants  with  their  friends,  the  plant-lice,  in  a 
glazed  box,  placing  at  the  bottom  of  the  box,  earth,  mixed  with 
the  roots  of  some  plants,  whose  branches  vegetated  outside  the 
box.  He  watered  this  ant-hill  from  time  to  time,  and  thus  both 
the  animals  and  the  plants  found  in  his  apparatus  sufficient 
nourishment. 

"  The  ants,"  he  says,  "  did  not  endeavour  in  the  least  to  make 
their  escape.  They  seemed  to  want  for  nothing,  and  to  be  quite 
content.  They  tended  their  larvae  and  females  with  the  same 
affection  they  would  have  shown  in  their  usual  ant-hill ;  they  took 
great  care  of  the  plant-lice,  and  never  did  them  any  harm.  These, 
on  the  other  hand,  did  not  seem  to  fear  the  ants ;  they  allowed 
themselves  to  be  moved  about  from  one  place  to  another,  and 

K 


130  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

when  they  were  set  down  they  remained  in  the  place  chosen 
for  them  by  their  guardians.  When  the  ants  wished  to  move 
them  to  a  fresh  place,  they  began  by  caressing  them  with  their 
antennae,  as  if  to  request  them  to  abandon  their  roots  or  to 
withdraw  their  trunk  from  the  cavity  in  which  it  was  inserted ; 
then  they  took  them  gently  above  or  below  the  abdomen  with 
their  teeth,  and  carried  them  with  the  same  care  they  would  have 
bestowed  on  the  larvae  of  their  own  species.  I  saw  the  same  ant 
take  three  plant-lice  in  succession,  each  bigger  than  itself,  and 

carry  them  away  into  a  dark  place However,  the  ants 

do  not  always  act  so  gently  towards  them.  When  they  fear 
that  they  may  be  carried  off  by  ants  of  another  kind,  and 
living  near  their  habitation,  or  when  one  opens  up  too  suddenly 
the  turf  under  which  they  are  hidden,  they  seize  them  up  in 
haste  and  carry  them  off  to  the  bottom  of  their  little  cavern. 
I  have  seen  the  ants  of  two  different  ant-hills  fighting  for  their 
plant-lice.  When  those  belonging  to  one  ants'  nest  could  enter 
the  nest  of  the  others,  they  took  them  away  from  their  rightful 
owners,  and  often  these  took  possession  of  them  again  in  their 
turn ;  for  the  ants  know  well  the  value  of  these  little  animals, 
which  seem  made  on  purpose  for  them, — they  are  the  ants' 
treasures.  An  ants'  nest  is  more  or  less  rich  according  as  it  is 
more  or  less  stocked  with  plant-lice.  The  plant-lice  are  its  cattle, 
its  cows,  its  goats.  One  would  never  have  thought  that  the  ants 
frere  a  pastoral  people  !  "  * 

Their  hiding  in  the  ants'  nest  is  not  voluntary;  they  are 
prisoners  of  war.  The  ants,  after  having  hollowed  out  galleries 
in  the  midst  of  roots,  make  a  foray  upon  the  turf,  and  seize 
upon  plant-lice  scattered  about  here  and  there,  bringing  them  with 
them,  and  collect  them  together  in  their  nests.  The  captive 
insects  take  their  wrongs  with  patience,  and  behave  like  philo- 
sophers under  this  new  kind  of  life.  They  lavish  on  their  masters, 
with  the  best  grace  in  the  world,  the  nutritious  juices  with  which 
their  bodies  superabound.  Charles  Bonnet  has  stated  some  real 
wonders  of  the  cleverness  and  industry  of  other  ants  which  also 
make  a  provision  of  plant-lice. 

"  I  discovered  one  day,"  says  he,  "  a  euphorbia,  which  supported 
*  Recherches,  &c.,  pp.  192 — 194. 


HEMIPTEEA.  131 

in  the  middle  of  its  stem  a  small  sphere,  to  which  it  served  as  the 
axis.  It  was  a  case  which  the  ants  had  constructed  of  earth. 
They  issued  forth  from  this  by  a  very  narrow  opening  made  in 
its  base,  descended  the  stem,  and  passed  into  a  neighbouring  ants' 
nest.  I  destroyed  one  part  of  this  pavilion,  built  almost  in  the 
air,  so  that  I  might  study  the  interior.  It  was  a  little  room, 
whose  vault-shaped  walls  were  smooth  and  even.  The  ants  had 
profited  by  the  form  of  the  plant  to  sustain  their  edifice.  The 
stalk  passed  up  the  centre  of  the  apartment,  and  for  its  timber- 
work  it  had  the  leaves.  This  retreat  contained  a  numerous  family 
of  plant-lice,  to  which  the  brown  ants  came  peacefully,  to  make 
their  harvest,  sheltered  from  the  rain,  the  sun,  and  from  other 
ants.  No  insect  could  disturb  them,  and  the  plant-lice  were  not 
exposed  to  the  attacks  of  their  numerous  enemies.  I  admired  this 
trait  of  industry,  and  I  was  not  long  in  finding  it  again  in  a  more 
interesting  character  in  ants  of  different  species. 

"  Some  red  ants  had  built  round  the  foot  of  a  thistle  a  tube  of 
earth,  two  inches  and  a  half  long  by  one  and  a  half  broad.  The 
ants'  nest  was  below,  and  communicated  directly  with  the  cylinder. 
I  took  the  stalk  with  what  surrounded  it,  and  all  that  the  cylinder 
contained.  That  portion  of  the  stem  which  was  inside  the  earthen 
tube  was  covered  with  plant-lice.  I  very  soon  saw  the  ants  coming 
out  of  the  opening  I  had  made  at  the  base ;  they  were  very  much 
astonished  to  see  daylight  at  that  place,  and  I  saw  that  they 
lived  there  with  their  larvae.  They  carried  these  with  great  haste 
to  the  highest  part  of  the  cylinder  which  had  not  been  altered. 
In  this  retreat  they  were  within  reach  of  their  plant-lice,  and  here 
they  fed  their  young. 

"  In  other  places  many  stalks  of  the  euphorbia  laden  with  plant- 
lice  rose  in  the  very  centre  of  an  ant-hill  belonging  to  the  brown, 
ants.  These  insects,  profiting  by  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the 
leaves  of  this  plant,  had  constructed  round  each  branch  as  many 
little  elongated  cases  ;  and  it  was  here  they  came  to  get  their  food. 
Having  destroyed  one  of  these  cells,  the  ants  forthwith  carried  off 
into  their  nests  their  precious  animals  ;  a  few  days  afterwards  it 
was  repaired  under  my  eyes  by  these  insects,  and  the  herd  were 
taken  back  to  their  pens. 

"  These  cases  are  not  always  at  a  few  inches  from  the  ground. 

K2 


132 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


I  saw  one  five  feet  above  the  soil,  and  this  one  deserves  also  to  be 
described.  It  consisted  of  a  blackish,  rather  short  tube,  which  was 
built  round  a  small  branch  of  the  poplar  at  the  point  where  it 


Fig.  91.— Aphides  and  Ants  (magnified). 

left  the  trunk.  The  ants  reached  it  by  the  interior  of  the  tree, 
which  was  excavated,  and  without  showing  themselves,  they  were 
able  to  reach  their  plant-lice  by  an  opening  which  they  had  made 


HEMIPTEEA.  133 

in  the  beginning  of  this  branch.  This  tube  was  formed  of  rotten 
wood,  of  the  vegetable  earth  of  this  very  tree,  and  I  saw  many 
a  time  the  ants  bringing  little  bits  in  their  mouths  to  repair  the 
breaches  I  had  made  in  their  pavilion.  These  are  not  very 
common  traits,  and  are  not  of  the  number  of  those  which  can  be 
attributed  to  an  habitual  routine."* 

One  day,  Pierre  Huber  discovered  in  a  nest  of  yellow  ants  a 
cell  containing  a  mass  of  eggs  having  the  appearance  of  ebony. 
They  were  surrounded  by  a  number  of  ants,  which  appeared  to 
be  guarding  them,  and  endeavouring  to  carry  them  off. 

Huber  took  possession  of  the  cell,  its  inhabitants,  and  of  the 
little  treasure  it  contained,  and  placed  the  whole  in  a  box  lid, 
covered  with  a  piece  of  glass,  so  as  to  be  more  easily  observed. 
He  saw  the  ants  approach  the  eggs,  pass  their  tongues  in  between 
them,  depositing  on  them  a  liquid.  They  seemed  to  treat  these 
eggs  exactly  as  they  would  have  treated  those  of  their  own 
species ;  they  felt  them  with  their  antennae,  gathered  them  to- 
gether, raised  them  frequently  to  their  mouths,  and  did  not  leave 
them  for  an  instant.  They  took  them  up,  and  turned  them  over, 
and  after  having  examined  them  with  care,  they  carried  them 
with  extreme  delicacy  into  the  little  earthen  case  placed  near 
them,  f 

These  were  not,  however,  ants'  eggs.  They  were  the  eggs  of 
aphides.  The  young  which  were  soon  to  be  hatched  were  to 
give  to  the  provident  ants  a  reward  for  the  attentions  they  had 
lavished  upon,  them.  How  wonderful  are  the  life  and  the  habits 
of  the  plant-lice,  and  their  relations  to  ants !  But  we  should  be 
led  on  too  far,  if  we  were  to  pursue  these  attractive  details. 

We  pass  on  now  to  the  history  of  another  family — namely, 
the  Gallinsecta,  as  Reaumur  calls  them,  or  Cocci  They  pass 
the  greatest  part  of  their  lives — that  is  to  say,  many  months — 
entirely  motionless,  sticking  to  the  stalks  or  branches  of  shrubs ; 
remaining  thus  as  devoid  of  movement  as  the  plant  to  which  they 
are  attached.  One  would  say  that  they  were  part  and  parcel  of 
it.  Their  form  is  so  simple,  that  nothing  in  their  exterior  would 
make  one  guess  them  to  be  insects.  The  larger  they  become,  the 

*  Traite  d'Insectologie,  &c.,  pp.  198—201. 
f  Recherches,  &c.,  pp.  205,  206. 


134  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

less  they  resemble  living  things.  When  the  coccus  is  in  a  state 
for  multiplying  its  species,  when  it  is  engaged  in  laying  its 
thousands  of  eggs,  it  resembles  only  an  excrescence  of  the  tree. 

The  Gallinsecta  are  found  on  the  elm,  the  oak,  the  lime,  the 
alder,  the  holly,  the  orange  tree,  and  the  oleander.  Some  of  the 
species  are  remarkable  for  the  beautiful  red  colouring  matter 
which  they  furnish.  Such  are  the  Coccus  cacti,  the  Chermes 
variegatus,  or  Oak  Tree  Cochineal,  and  the  Coccus  polonicus. 

The  common  cochineal,  Coccus  cacti,  is  found  in  Mexico,  on  the 
Nopal,  or  prickly  pear  (Opuntia),  particularly  on  the  Opuntia 
vulgaris,  the  Opuntia  cocci/era,  and  the  Opuntia  una,  plants 
which  belong  to  the  family  of  the  Cactacese. 

These  insects  are  rather  remarkable,  in  that  the  male  and  female 
are  so  unlike,  that  one  would  take  them  for 
animals  of  different  genera. 

fJlL         The  male  presents  an  elongated,  depressed  body, 
T  JJR   °f a  dark-brown  red.     Its  head  small,  furnished 
MiM    with  two  long  feathery  antennae,  has  only  a  rudi- 
w'f     mentary  beak.     The  abdomen  is  terminated  by 
two  fine  hairs  longer  than  its  body.     The  wings, 
perfectly  transparent,  reach  beyond  the  extremity 
of  its  abdomen,  and  cross  each  other  horizontally 

over  its  back-  Tt  is  livelv  and  active.  The  female 
ale'  presents  quite  a  different  appearance.  It  is  in 
the  first  place  twice  as  large  as  the  male  (Fig.  92),  convex  above, 
flat  below.  It  resembles  a  larva,  and  has  no  wings.  Its  body 
is  formed  of  a  dozen  segments,  covered  with  a  glaucous  dust. 
The  beak  is  very  fully  developed,  and  the  two  hairs  or  bristles 
on  the  abdomen  are  much  shorter  than  in  the  male. 

The  weight  of  the  body,  compared  with  the  shortness  of  the 
legs,  prevents  these  creatures  from  being  active.  The  legs  only 
serve,  in  fact,  for  clinging  to  the  vegetable  from  which  they  draw 
their  nourishment.  The  circumstances  attending  the  birth  of  the 
cochineal  insect  are  very  curious.  The  larvse  are  born  in  the 
dried-up  body  of  their  dead  mother,  the  skeleton  of  their  mother 
serving  them  as  a  cradle.  This  happens  thus : — The  eggs  are 
attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  mother's  body.  When  the  abdo- 
men of  the  mother  is  empty,  its  lower  side  draws  up  towards  the 


HEMIPTEEA.  135 

upper  side,  and  the  two  together  form  a  pretty  large  cavity.  When 
the  mother  dies,  which  is  not  long  in  happening,  her  abdomen 
dries  up,  her  skin  becomes  horny,  and  forms  a  sort  of  shell.  It 
is  in  this  membranous  cradle  that  the  larvae  of  the  cochineal  insect 
are  born.  The  cochineal  insect  in  its  wild  state  lives  in  the 
woods.  But  it  can  without  difficulty  be  reared  artificially. 

Every  one  knows  that  the  little  insect  called  the  cochineal 
furnishes,  when  its  body  has  been  dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  a 
colouring  matter  of  a  beautiful  red,  peculiar  to  itself.  This 
circumstance  has  saved  the  cochineal  from  the  persecution 
to  which  so  many  other  kinds  of  insects  have  been  devoted 
by  the  hand  of  man.  In  hot  climates,  in  which  the  cochineal 
insect  delights,  it  has  been  preserved,  and  is  cultivated  as  an 
article  of  commerce.  This  is  how  the  cochineal  is  reared  in 
Mexico : — An  open  piece  of  land  is  chosen,  protected  against  the 
west  wind,  and  of  about  one  or  two  acres  in  extent.  This  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  hedge  of  reeds,  planted  in  lines,  distant  from  each 
other  about  a  yard,  with  cuttings  of  cactus  at  most  about  two  feet 
apart.  The  cactus  garden  made,  the  next  thing  is  to  establish  in 
it  cochineals.  With  this  object  in  view  they  are  sought  in  the 
woods,  or  else  the  females  of  the  cochineal  insect  which  are  gravid 
are  taken  off  plants  which  have  been  sheltered  during  the  winter, 
and  placed  in  dozens,  in  nests  made  of  cocoa-nut  fibres,  or  in  little 
plaited  baskets  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  dwarf  palm,  and  hung 
on  the  prickles  of  the  cactus.  These  are  very  soon  covered 
with  young  larvae.  The  only  thing  now  required  to  be  done  is 
to  shelter  them  from  wind  and  rain. 

The  larvae  are  changed  into  perfect  insects,  which  take 
up  their  abode  permanently  on  the  branches  of  the  cacti,  as 
Fig.  93  represents.  The  Mexicans  gather  them  as  soon  as  they 
have  reached  the  perfect  state.  The  harvest  cannot  be  difficult, 
considering  the  immobility  of  these  little  creatures.  When  col- 
lected, the  cochineals  are  shut  up  in  wooden  boxes,  and  sent  to 
Europe,  to  be  used  in  dyeing. 

Such  is  the  method,  very  simple,  as  we  see,  of  rearing  the  cochi- 
neal, a  method  which  has  been  followed  for  centuries  in  Mexico. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1700,  a  Frenchman  named  Thierry 
de  Menouville,  formed  the  project  of  taking  this  precious  insect  away 


136 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


from  the  Spaniards,  and  of  bestowing  it  upon  the  French  colonies. 
He  landed  in  Mexico,  and  concealed  so  well  the  object  of  his 
voyage,  that  he  managed  to  embark  and  carry  to  St.  Domingo 
several  cases  containing  plants  covered  with  living  cochineals. 
Unfortunately,  a  revolution  which  had  broken  out  at  St.  Domingo 


Fig.  93.— Branch  of  me  Cactus,  with  Cochineal  insects  on 

prevented  any  profit  arising  from  his  praiseworthy  endeavours. 
The  cochineals  'died,  and  the  Spaniards  preserved  their  monopoly 
in  the  rearing  of  this  insect. 

In  1806  M.  Souceylier,  a  surgeon  in  the  French  navy,  sue- 


HEMIPTEEA.  137 

ceeded  in  bringing  from  Mexico  into  Europe  some  live  cochineals. 
He  gave  them  to  the  professor  of  botany  at  Toulon  ;  but  this 
attempt  to  preserve  them  was  unsuccessful. 

In  1827  the  naturalisation  of  the  cochineal  was  attempted  in 
Corsica,  but  without  success.  During  the  same  year  the  cochi- 
neal was  introduced  into  the  Canary  Islands,  but  the  inhabitants 
did  not  understand  the  importance  of  this  attempt.  They  counted 
the  cochineal  among  the  number  of  noxious  insects,  and  tried  in 
all  ways  to  rid  themselves  of  it.  It  was  only  after  results  obtained 
by  some  more  intelligent  farmers,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Canary  Islands  perceived  the  profits  they  might  derive.  From 
that  time  its  cultivation  became  more  extensive,  and  after  the 
year  1831  it  increased  rapidly.  Thus  the  cochineal  imported  from 
the  Canary  Isles  in  that  year  amounted  to  only  4  kilogrammes. 
In  1832  the  amount  was  60  kilogrammes,  in  1833  it  was  660  kilo- 
grammes, in  1838,  9,000  kilogrammes,  and  in  1850,  400,000  kilo- 
grammes. The  French  colonists  in  Algeria  also  tried  to  raise  it. 
In  1831,  M.  Limounet,  a  chemist  of  Algiers,  collected  some  cochi- 
neals, and  had  the  merit  of  first  introducing  the  insect  into 
the  colony.  On  account  of  bad  weather,  these  first  essays  were 
fruitless,  but  it  was  not  long  before  they  were  repeated. 

M.  Loze,  surgeon  in  the  navy,  undertook  to  introduce  the 
insect  again,  and  with  M.  Hardy,  director  of  the  central  garden 
of  Algiers,  gave  himself  up,  with  great  intelligence,  to  the  natural- 
isation and  rearing  of  the  cochineal  in  Algeria. 

In  1847  the  French  Minister  of  War,  for  the  purpose  of 
having  the  value  of  the  Algerian  cochineal  fixed  by  commerce, 
caused  to  be  sold  publicly  on  the  market-place  of  Marseilles  a 
case  of  cochineal,  the  produce  of  the  harvests  of  1845  and  1846, 
from  the  experimental  garden  of  Algiers,  and  which  contained 
17  kilogrammes  of  this  commodity.  Since  that  time  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  insect,  the  beginning  of  which  was  due  to  M.  Limou- 
net, has  rapidly  developed.  In  1853,  in  the  province  of  Algiers 
alone,  there  were  fourteen  nopaleries,  or  cactus  gardens,  contain- 
ing 61,500  plants.  The  Government  at  that  time  bought  the 
harvests  for  fifteen  francs  the  kilogramme. 

We  have  only  pointed  out  in  a  general  way  how  the  cochineal 
harvest  is  conducted.  We  will  now  enter  into  some  details  on  the 


138  ^    THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

subject.  These  insects  are  gathered  when  the  females  are  about 
to  lay,  that  is,  when  a  few  young  are  hatched.  It  is  when  the 
females  are  gravid  that  they  contain  the  greatest  amount  of 
colouring  matter.  When  the  harvest  time  has  arrived,  the 
rearers  stretch  out  on  the  ground  pieces  of  linen  at  the  foot  of  the 
plants,  and  detach  the  cochineals  from  them,  brushing  the  plants 
with  a  rather  hard  brush,  or  scraping  them  off  with  the  blade  of  a 
blunt  knife. 

If  the  season  is  favourable,  the  operation  may  be  repeated  three 
times  in  the  course  of  a  year  in  the  same  plantation.  The  insects 
thus  collected  are  killed,  by  dipping  into  boiling  water,  being  put 
into  an  oven,  or  by  torrefying  them  on  a  plate  of  hot  iron.  The 
cochineals  when  withdrawn  from  the  boiling  water  are  placed 
upon  drainers,  first  in  the  sun,  then  in  the  shade,  then  in  an 
airy  place.  During  their  immersion  in  water  they  lose  the  white 
powder  which  covers  them.  In  this  state  they  are  called  in 
Mexico  ronagridas.  Those  which  have  been  passed  through  the 
oven  they  call  jaspeaclas,  and  are  of  an  ashy  grey  ;  those  that 
are  torrefied,  are  black,  and  are  called  negras.  In  commerce 
three  sorts  of  cochineal  are  recognised ;  first,  the  mastique  (mes- 
teque],  of  a  reddish  colour,  with  a  more  or  less  abundant  glaucous 
powder;  secondly,  the  noire,  which  is  large  and  of  a  blackish 
brown  ;  thirdly,  the  sylvestre,  which  is,  on  the  contrary,  smaller 
and  reddish.  The  latter  is  the  least  esteemed,  and  is  gathered  on 
wild  cacti. 

Each  year  there  are  imported  into  France  200,000  kilogrammes 
of  cochineals,  which  represent  a  value  of  about  three  millions  of 
francs.  Every  one  knows  that  it  is  with  cochineal  that  carmine 
is  made,  a  magnificent  red  frequently  employed  by  painters. 
Lake  carmine  is  another  product  obtained  from  the  cochineal. 
And,  lastly,  scarlet  is  the  powder  of  the  cochineal  precipitated  by 
salt  of  tin. 

Before  the  Mexican  cochineal  was  known  in  Europe,  the  kermes, 
or  Coccus  ilicis,  known  still  in  commerce  and  by  chemists  under 
the  names  of  Animal  kermes,  Vegetable  kermes,  and  Scarlet  seed, 
was  used  for  the  preparation  of  the  carmine  employed  in  the 
arts.  This  cochineal  lives  by  preference  (at  least,  so  it  is  sup- 
posed) on  the  evergreen  oak  ( Quercus  ilex)  ;  whence  its  specific 
name. 


HEMIPTEEA.  139 

The  Coccus  ilicis  develops  itself  almost  exclusively,  not  on  the 
green  oak,  but  on  the  Quercus  cocci/era,  or  kermes  oak,  a  shrub 
common  in  dry  arid  places  on  the  Continent,  and  which  vegetates 
on  a  great  number  of  spots  on  the  Mediterranean,  particularly 
on  the  garrigues  or  waste  lands  of  Herault. 

The  females  of  this  insect,  which,  dried,  bear  the  name  of 
graines  de  kermes,  are  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  currant,  without 
any  trace  of  rings,  nearly  spherical,  of  a  violet  and  glaucous 
colour.  They  adhere  to  the  boughs  of  the  shrub  Quercus  cocci/era, 
and  form  dry,  brittle  masses,  which  the  peasants  of  the  south  of 
France  collect,  and  sell  at  a  tolerably  high  price. 

Before  we  possessed  the  cochineal  of  Mexico  and  of  Algeria, 
this  cochineal  was  very  much  employed  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
in  the  East,  and  in  Africa.  It  furnishes  a  beautiful  red  colour. 
This  last  named  and  the  Mexican  cochineal  are  somewhat  used 
in  pharmacy.  They  enter  into  alkermes,  a  sort  of  liquor  served 
at  dinner  in  Italy,  chiefly  at  Florence  and  Naples. 

Another  species  of  cochineal  is  the  Coccus  polonicus,  which  is 
met  with  in  Poland  and  Russia,  more  rarely  in  France,  on  the 
roots  of  a  small  plant,  the  Scleranthus  perennis.  This  cochineal 
is  gathered  in  the  Ukraine  towards  the  end  of  June,  when  the 
abdomen  of  the  females  is  swollen,  and  filled  with  a  purple  and 
sanguineous  juice. 

The  Polish  kermes  (Coccus  polonicus)  was  formerly  used  very 
much  in  Europe.  This  product  has  not  indeed  lost  all  its  im- 
portance in  those  countries  where  it  is  met  with  in  abundance. 

We  have  now  only  to  point  out  among  the  insects  of  this  group 
the  Coccus  locca,  which  lives  in  India  on  many  trees,  among 
others  on  the  Indian  fig-tree,  the  Pagoda  fig-tree,  the  Jujube  tree, 
on  the  Croton,  &c. 

These  last-mentioned  insects  produce  a  colouring  matter  known 
under  the  name  of  lac.  They  fix  themselves  on  the  little  branches, 
getting  together  in  great  numbers,  forming  nearly  straight  lines. 
The  bodies  of  many  fecundated  females,  united  together  by  a 
resinous  exudation  which  is  caused  by  the  piercing  of  the  bark, 
constitutes  the  matter  called  in  commerce,  and  by  dyers,  by  the 
name  of  lac,  resinous  lac,  gum  lac,  &c. 

Resinous  lac  is  found  in  commerce  under  four  forms  :  first,  the 


140  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

lac  in  sticks,  such  as  it  is  found  concreted  at  the  extremity  of  the 
branches  whence  it  exudes — it  is  an  irregular  brownish  crust ; 
secondly,  the  sorted  lac,  picked  off  the  branches  and  pounded ; 
thirdly,  the  lac  in  scales  melted  down  and  run  into  thin  plates, 
which  vary  in  quality  according  to  the  proportion  of  colouring 
matter  they  contain  ;  fourthly,  the  lac  in  threads,  which  resembles 
reddish  threads,  and  is  prepared  thus  in  India. 

One  more  word  about  the  cochineal.  The  Coccus  manniparus, 
which  lives  on  the  shrubs  on  Mount  Sinai,  causes  to  exude  from 
the  branches  it  has  pierced  a  sort  of  manna.  The  Coccus  sinensis 
produces  a  kind  of  wax  which  is  employed  in  China  in  the  manu- 
facture of  candles. 


IV. 
LEPIDOPTERA. 

THIS  order  of  insects  is  known  popularly  by  the  names  of  Butter- 
fly and  Moth.  Linnaeus  gave  them  the  name  of  Lepidoptera, 
meaning  insects  with  scaly  wings  (ACTU'S,  a  scale,  and  rrrepoV,  a  wing) . 
They  are  to  be  found  in  great  numbers  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  All 
the  insects  contained  in  the  order  are,  in  their  perfect  state,  remark- 
able for  the  elegance  of  their  shape,  the  rapidity  and  airiness  of  their 
flight,  and  the  multiplicity  and  beauty  of  their  colours.  Before 
they  arrive  at  this  perfect  state,  the  Lepidoptera  have  to  undergo 
three  complete  transformations.  They  leave  the  egg  in  the  larva  or 
caterpillar  state  ;  they  pass  next  to  the  state  of  pupa  or  chrysalis  ; 
they  then  assume,  after  a  variable  time,  their  final  or  perfect  form. 
We  will  study  them  in  their  three  different  states  in  succession. 

THE  LARVA,  OR  CATERPILLAR. 

"When  the  winter  has  stripped  the  leaves  off  the  trees,  the 
Lepidoptera  are  seen  no  more.  But  as  soon  as  the  leaves  begin 
to  show  themselves  on  the  trees  and  shrubs,  this  tribe  of  the 
insect  race  again  make  their  appearance.  Caterpillars  of  all 
kinds  are  gnawing  at  the  leaves,  even  before  they  are  fully 
developed.  Many  of  them  have  just  emerged  from  the  eggs 
which  the  insects  had  laid  at  an  earlier  period ;  others  have 
passed  the  winter  in  this  state. 

When  they  come  out  of  the  egg,  the  young  caterpillars  are 
in  shape  more  or  less  elongated  and  cylindrical.  Their  body  i-s 
composed  of  twelve  segments  or  rings.  In  front  is  the  head  ; 
then  come  three  segments,  on  which  are  the  front  legs,  and  which 


142  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

constitute  the  thorax ;  the  other  segments  constitute  the  abdomen. 
The  head  is  formed  of  two  scaly  parts.  It  is  often  very  deeply 
hollowed  out  on  its  upper  side,  and  divided  into  two  lobes,  which 
contain  in  the  angle  formed  by  their  separation  the  different  parts 
of  the  mouth.  The  head  is  uniform,  rarely  having,  as  far  as  our 
caterpillars  are  concerned,  any  protuberance ;  but  in  the  tropi- 
cal species  it  is  often  armed  with  prickles,  spikes,  and  extraordinary 
appendages.  They  are  provided  with  six  small  simple  eyes ; 
isolated  from  each  other.  The  mouth  is  armed  laterally  with 
a  pair  of  very  solid  horny  mandibles,  articulated  by  means  of 
vigorous  muscles,  and  moving  horizontally.  It  is  the  function 
of  the  mandibles,  as  with  the  jaws,  to  divide  the  creature's  food. 
On  the  middle  of  a  broad  under-lip,  one  may  perceive  a  little 
elongated  tubular  organ,  pierced  with  a  microscopic  orifice.  This 
organ  is  the  spinning  apparatus,  which  the  animal  uses  in  fabri- 
cating the  threads  which  it  will  one  day  require.  It  is  a  tube 
composed  of  longitudinal  fibres.  It  presents  only  one  orifice,  cut 
obliquely,  and  capable  of  applying  itself  exactly  to  the  body 
on  which  the  larva  is  placed.  From  the  contractile  nature  of 
this  organ  and  the  form  of  its  orifice,  combined  with  the 
faculty  the  insect  possesses  of  moving  it  in  all  directions,  result 
the  great  differences  we  observe  in  the  diameter  and  form  of  the 
threads. 

The  external  organs  of  the  trunk  and  abdomen  are  the  legs, 
the  spiracles,  and  various  occasional  appendages.     The  legs  are 


Fig.  94.— Scaly  legs  of  the  Oak  and  Elm  Caterpillar. 

of  two  different  kinds.  The  one,  to  the  number  of  six,  attached 
by  pairs  to  the  trunk,  are  covered  with  a  shiny  cartilage,  and 
armed  with  hooks.  These  are  the  true  legs.  Fig.  94  represents, 
after  Reaumur's  "Memoire  sur  les  Differentes  Parties  des  Che- 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


143 


nilles,"*  the  scaly  legs  of  the  caterpillar  of  the  oak  and  elm. 
The  others  are  membranous,  fleshy,  generally  conical  or  cylin- 
drical, contractile,  and  taking,  according  to  the  will  of  the  animal, 
very  different  forms.  Fig.  95  represents,  after  the  same  memoir 
of  Reaumur's,  the  different  forms  of  the  membranous  legs  of 


Fig.  95. — Membranous  legs  of  the  Silkworm  (Bombyz  mori) . 

the  Silkworm  caterpillar.  This  plate  gives  a  sufficiently  good 
idea  of  the  shape  of  these  organs,  and  of  the  hooks,  circular  or 
semi- circular,  with  which  they  are  furnished. 

In  Fig.  96  are  represented,  after  the  same  author,  two  mem- 
branous legs  of  a  large  caterpillar, 
of  which  the  hooks  of  the  feet  are 
fastened  into  a  branch  of  a  shrub. 

Caterpillars  have  from  two  to  ten 
false  legs,  the  scaly  legs  being  always 
six  in  number.  The  pro-legs,  as  the 
fleshy  ones  are  called,  are  divided 
into  hinder  and  intermediate.  The 
former  are  two  in  number ;  the  in- 
termediate are  rarely  more  than 
eight  in  number. 

In  the  caterpillars  which  have  the 
full  number  of  legs — that  is  to  say, 
sixteen — there  are  two  empty  spaces, 
where  the  body  has  no  support :  the 
one  between  the  legs  and  the  pro-legs,  formed  by  the  fourth  and 
fifth  segments ;  the  other,  between  the  intermediate  pro-legs  and 
the  anal  legs,  formed  by  the  tenth  and  eleventh  ring. 
*  Tome  i.  p.  164,  Plate  iii.  Figs.  1,  2. 


Fig.  96. — Membranous  legs  of  a  large 
Caterpillar  embracing  a  twig. 


144 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


The  variations  which  caterpillars  present,  as  far  as  the  number 
and  situations  of  their  pro-legs  are  concerned,  are  the  following: — 
The  greatest  number  among  them  have  ten  pro-legs  ;  others 
have  only  eight ;  others  only  six,  these  may  be  called  semi- 
loopers;  others  only  four,  one  pair  being  situated  on  the  last 
ring,  and  the  other  on  the  ninth,  as  is  the  case  of  Looper  cater- 
pillars. And,  lastly,  there  are  others  which  have  only  two  pro-legs. 
The  various  forms,  numbers,  and  positions  of  these  organs,  produce 
great  differences  in  the  mode  of  locomotion  of  caterpillars.  Those 
provided  with  ten  or  eight  membranous  legs  have  in  walking 
only  a  very  slight  undulating  motion.  Their  bodies  are  parallel 
to  the  plane  which  supports  them.  They  can  walk  very  quickly  ; 
but  their  steps  are  short  and  quickly  repeated.  Others,  on  the 
contrary,  in  proportion  as  the  number  of  their  false  legs  diminish, 
and  the  spaces  between  the  legs  increase,  walk  in  a  more  irregular 
and  quaint  manner. 

If  the  reader  will  glance  at  Fig.  97,    taken  from  Reaumur's 
"  Memoire  sur  les  Chenilles  en  general/'*  which  represents  a  Looper 

caterpillar,  with  four  mem- 
branous legs,  he  will  see  that 
there  is  a  considerable  space 
between  the  posterior  legs  and 
the  first  pair  of  pro-legs,  along 
which  the  body  has  no  points 
of  support.  If  one  of  these  caterpillars,  lying  quiet  and  at  full 
length,  determines  to  walk,  in  order  to  take  its  first  step  (Fig.  98) 
it  begins  by  humping  its  back,  curving  into  an  arch  that  part  which 
has  no  legs,  and  finishes  by  assuming  the  position  seen  in  Fig.  99. 


Fig.  97.— Looper  Caterpillar. 


Fig.  93.— Caterpillar  curved  into  an  arch.  Fig.  99.— Caterpillar  at  full  length. 

In  the  former  position  it  has  its  two  intermediate  legs  against  the 
posterior  legs,  and,  in  consequence,  it  has  brought  forward  the 
hinder  part  of  its  body,  a  distance  equal  to  the  interval  of  the  five 
segments  which  separate  them.  There  it  hooks  on  by  its  interme- 
*  Tome  i.  p.  49,  Plate  i.  Fig.  6. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


145 


diate  and  hind  legs.  Then  it  has  only  to  raise  and  straighten  the 
five  rings  which  had  formed  the  loop,  and  to  advance  its  head  to 
a  distance  equal  to  the  length  of  five  segments.  The  step  is  thus 
made,  the  caterpillar  making  the  same  movements  in  taking  the 
second  and  following  steps. 

This  sort  of  gait  has  gained  for  them  the  name  of  Geometers, 
because  they  seem  to  measure  the  road  over  which  they  travel. 
When  they  make  a  step,  they  apply  the  part  of  their  body  which 
they  have  just  curved  up,  to  the  ground,  in  exactly  the  same 
way  as  a  land  surveyor  applies  his  chain  to  it. 

These  looper  caterpillars  cannot  shorten  nor  lengthen  their  seg- 
ments at  will,  as  other  caterpillars,  but  only  bend  their  bodies.  There 


Fig.  100.— Caterpillar  of  the  Swallow-tail  Moth  (Ourapteryx  srtmbucaria). 

are  many  species  whose  bodies  are  cylindrical,  stiff,  and  of  the  same 
colour  as  bark.  Their  attitudes  deceive  even  the  close  observer. 
They  embrace  the  stem  of  a  leaf  or  twig,  with  their  hinder  and 
intermediate  legs,  whilst  the  rest  of  their  body,  vertically  elevated, 
remains  stiff  and  immovable  for  hours  together.  Fig.  100  shows 
the  caterpillar  of  the  Swallow-tail  moth  (Ourapteryx  sambucaria) 
in  this  strange  position.  Now  this  is  a  feat  of  strength  which 
the  most  skilful  of  our  acrobats,  ordinary  and  extraordinary, 

L 


146  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

which  all  the  Leotards  of  the  present  day,  and  those  who  are  to 
succeed  them,  can  never  accomplish.  With  such  a  persistency, 
this  caterpillar  can  sustain  its  body  in  the  air  for  a  considerable 
time,  in  all  the  positions  imaginable,  between  the  vertical  and  the 
horizontal,  and  downwards  again  in  any  incline  from  the  horizontal 
to  the  vertical.  "If  one  considers,"  says  Reaumur,  "how far  we 
are  from  having  in  the  muscles  of  our  arms  a  force  capable  of  sup- 
porting us  in  such  attitudes  as  these,  we  must  own  that  the  power 
of  the  muscles  in  these  insects  is  prodigious." 

We  will  not  dwell  now  on  the  variableness  of  the  length  of  the 
body  of  caterpillars ;  on  the  fleshy  appendages  which  are  to  be 
observed  on  them ;  on  the  hairs  which  either  beautify  or  render 
them  hideous,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  observer ;  nor  on  the 
various  colours  with  which  they  are  decorated.  We  will  speak 
again  on  these  various  characteristics,  when  giving  the  history 
of  some  species  of  Lepidoptera  remarkable  in  different  ways. 

Many  caterpillars  are  solitary ;  others  live  in  companies  more  or 
less  numerous,  either  when  young,  or  during  the  whole  of  their 
existence. 

With  the  exception  of  a  great  number  of  moths,  which  live  at  the 
expense  of  our  furs,  or  woollen  stuffs,  and  leather  or  fatty  matters, 
all  caterpillars  feed  on  plants.  From  the  root  to  the  seeds,  no  part 
of  the  vegetable  is  safe  from  their  attacks.  The  greatest  number 
of  the  species,  however,  prefer  the  leaves.  Those  of  the  most  acrid 
and  poisonous  are  no  more  spared  than  those  of  the  most  harmless 
plants.  There  are  caterpillars  which  eat  the  leaves  of  the  Euphorbia, 
or  spurge,  for  instance. 

"  I  wished  to  try,"  says  Reaumur,  "  the  milk  of  this  plant  on 
my  tongue.  It  produced  hardly  any  effect  upon  it  at  first ;  but 
after  a  quarter  of  an  hour  I  found  my  mouth  on  fire,  and  it  was 
a  heat  which  reiterated  garglings  with  water  during  many  hours 
in  succession  could  not  quench.  This  continued  till  the  next  day. 
The  heat  passed  successively  from  one  part  of  my  mouth  to  another. 
I,  however,  saw  many  of  my  caterpillars  drinking  greedily  the 
great  drops  of  milk  which  were  at  the  end  of  the  broken  stem  I 
had  presented  to  them." 

Is  it  not  extraordinary  that  there  are  caterpillars  which  live  on 
the  nettle  ? — that  they  eat  the  leaves  of  this  plant,  armed  as  it  is 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  147 

with  stinging  bristles,  which  cause  such  smarting  and  itching  to 
our  skin,  and  produce  blisters  upon  it  ? 

It  has  often  been  said  that  each  plant  has  its  own  peculiar  species 
of  caterpillar.  All  we  can  say  is,  that  a  certain  number  of  veget- 
ables only  suit  certain  caterpillars.  The  species  which  eat  roots 
are  few ;  those  which  live  in  the  interior  of  stalks  or  stems  which 
they  feed  on  are  numerous,  and  those  which  nourish  themselves  on 
the  pulp  of  fruits  are  rare.  In  general,  after  the  leaves,  the  cater- 
pillars prefer  the  flowers  ;  in  this  they  certainly  do  not  show  bad 
taste.  Their  growth  is  more  or  less  rapid,  according  to  the  species, 
according  to  the  nourishment  they  take,  and  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year.  Those  whose  food  is  succulent  grow  more  rapidly  than 
those  which  have  for  their  food  dry  gramineous  plants  and  coria- 
ceous lichens.  Most  of  them  eat  at  night,  and  remain  during  the 
day  motionless,  and  as  it'  were  in  a  state  of  torpor ;  others  are  so 
voracious  that  they  are  constantly  eating.  This  voracity  is  indeed 
sometimes  surprising.  Malpighi  has  observed  that  a  silkworm 
often  eats  in  a  day  a  weight  of  mulberry  leaves  equal  to  its  own 
weight.  How  could  we  provide  our  horses  and  oxen  with  pro- 
vender, if  they  required  each  day  their  own  weight  of  hay  and 
grass?  There  are  even  some  caterpillars  which  are  still  more 
voracious  than  that.  Reaumur  weighed  several  caterpillars  of  a 
species  which  lives  on  the  cabbage,  and  gave  them  bits  of  cabbage 
leaves  which  weighed  twice  as  much  as  their  bodies.  In  less  than 
twenty-four  hours  they  had  entirely  consumed  them.  In  this 
space  of  time  their  weight  increased  one-tenth.  Fancy  a  man 
whose  weight  is  180  Ibs.  eating  in  one  day  360  Ibs.  of  meat,  and 
gaining  18  Ibs.  in  weight !  Caterpillars  eat  by  the  aid  of  two 
jaws  or  mandibles,  so  broad  and  solid  that,  considering  the 
smallness  of  the  insect,  they  are  equivalent  to  all  the  teeth  with 
which  large  animals  are  furnished.  It  is  by  the  alternate  move- 
ment of  these  mandibles  that  the  caterpillars  devour  the  leaves 
with  so  much  greediness  and  ease. 

"  A  caterpillar,  when  it  wants  to  gnaw  the  edge  of  a  leaf,"  says 
Reaumur,  "  twists  its  body  in  such  a  way  that  at  least  one  portion 
of  the  edge  of  this  leaf  is  passed  between  its  legs.  These  legs  hold 
fast  that  portion  of  the  leaf  which  is  to  be  cut  by  the  insect's 
jaws  (Fig.  101).  To  give  the  first  bite,  the  caterpillar  elongates 

L  2 


148  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

its  body,  and  carries  its  head  as  far  forward  as  possible.     The  por- 
tion of  the  leaf  which  is  between  the  open  jaws  is  cut  through  the 

instant  the  teeth  meet  each 
other  ;  the  bites  succeed  each 
other  quickly;  there  is  not 
one  of  these,  or  scarcely  one 
of  them,  that  does  not  detach 
a  bit,  and  each  bit  is  swal- 
lowed almost  as  soon  as  cut 
off.  At  each  fresh  bite,  the 
head  draws  near  to  the  legs ; 
in  such  a  way  that  during  the 
remaining  bites  it  describes  an 

Fig.  101,-Looper  Caterpill^Tating  the  leaves        arc  5  {i  ^olloWS  Out  the  portion 
of  the  Apricot  (after  Reaumur.)  of  ^    leftf  ^    ft   gegment  Qf  a 

circle,  and  it  is  always  in  this  order  that  it  gnaws  it." 

But  there  is  a  phenomenon  in  the  life  of  caterpillars  which  we 
ought  to  point  out,  and  which  has  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
most  illustrious  observers.  All  caterpillars  change  their  skins 
many  times  during  their  life.  It  is  not  indeed  enough  to  say 
that  they  change  their  skins  ;  the  skins  or  cases  they  cast  are  so 
complete,  that  they  might  be  taken  for  entire  caterpillars.  The 
hairs,  the  cases  of  the  legs,  the  nails  with  which  the  legs  are 
provided,  the  hard  and  solid  parts  which  cover  the  head,  the 
teeth, — all  these  are  found  in  the  skin  which  the  insect  abandons. 
What  an  operation  for  the  poor  little  animal !  This  work  is  so 
enormous,  so  troublesome,  that  one  cannot  form  a  just  idea  of  it. 
One  or  two  days  before  this  grand  crisis,  the  caterpillar  leaves 
off  eating,  loses  its  usual  activity,  and  becomes  motionless  and 
languid.  Their  colour  fades,  their  skin  dries  little  by  little,  they 
bow  their  backs,  swell  out  their  segments.  At  last  this  dried-up 
skin  splits  below  the  back,  on  the  second  or  third  ring,  and  lets 
us  have  a  glimpse  of  a  small  portion  of  the  new  skin,  easily  to  be 
recognised  by  the  freshness  and  brightness  of  its  colours. 

"  When  once  the  split  has  been  begun,"  says  Reaumur,  "  it  is 
easy  for  the  insect  to  extend  it ;  it  continues  to  swell  out  that  part 
of  its  body  which  is  opposite  the  slit.  Very  soon  this  part  raises 
itself  above  the  sides  of  the  split ;  it  does  the  work  of  a  wedge, 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  149 

which  elongates  it ;  thus  the  split  soon  extends  from  the  end  or 
the  commencement  of  the  first  ring  as  far  as  the  other  side  of  the 
end  of  the  fourth.  The  upper  portion  of  the  body  which  corre- 
sponds to  these  four  rings  is  then  laid  bare,  and  the  caterpillar 
has  an  opening  sufficiently  large  to  serve  it  as  an  egress 
through  which  it  can  entirely  leave  its  old  skin.  It  curves  its 
fore  part,  and  draws  it  backwards ;  by  this  movement  it  dis- 
engages its  head  from  under  its  old  envelope,  and  brings  it  up  to 
the  beginning  of  the  crack ;  immediately  upon  this  it  raises  it, 
and  causes  it  to  go  out  through  this  crack.  The  moment  after- 
wards it  stretches  out  its  fore  part  and  lowers  its  head.  There 
now  remains  for  the  caterpillar  nothing  but  to  draw  its  hinder  part 
from  the  old  case." 

This  excessively  laborious  operation  is  finished  in  less  than  a 
minute.  The  new  livery  which  the  caterpillar  has  just  put  on  is 
fresh  and  bright  in  colour.  But  the  animal  is  exhausted  by 
its  fast,  and  the  efforts  which  it  has  made.  It  requires  a  few 
hours  in  which  to  regain  its  equilibrium,  and  at  the  same  time 
its  former  activity  and  voracity. 

THE  CHRYSALIS,  OB  PUPA. 

Having  attained  its  full  development,  the  caterpillar  ceases  to 
eat,  as  at  the  approach  of  a  moult  it  empties  its  intestinal  canal 
by  copious  ejections  ;  it  loses  its  colours,  and  becomes  dull 
and  livid,  and  thus  prepares  itself  to  enter  a  new  phase  of  its 
existence. 

Some,  when  about  to  transform  themselves  into  chrysalides,  sus- 
pend themselves  to  foreign  bodies.  Others  spin  a  cocoon  com- 
posed of  silk  and  other  substances,  which  secures  them  against  the 
attacks  of  their  enemies  and  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  Those 
which  suspend  themselves  can  be  divided  under  two  heads,  accord- 
ing to  the  mode  of  their  suspension : — 1.  Those  which  suspend 
themselves  perpendicularly  by  the  tail.  2.  Those  which,  after 
having  fixed  themselves  by  the  same  part,  suspend  themselves 
horizontally,  by  means  of  a  silk  thread  passed  round  the 
body. 

To  understand  the  difiiculty  which  the  first  of  these  operations 


150  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

presents,  we  must  consider  the  problem  which  the  caterpillar  has 
to  solve.  In  this  problem  there  are  two  unknown  quantities  to 
be  discovered.  For  the  first,  the  caterpillar  must  suspend  itself 
firmly ;  for  the  second,  the  pupa,  having  no  communication  with 
the  object  which  supports  it,  must  be  suspended  in  the  same 
manner.  This  problem  is  difficult,  apparently  impossible  to  solve. 
It  is  only  by  watching  these  insects  at  work  that  one  can  discover 
the  admirable  mysteries  of  their  lives.  Swammerdam,  Valisnieri, 
and  other  observers  who  have  studied  insects,  had  not,  however, 
observed  the  manoeuvres  of  caterpillars  in  this  curious  phase  of 


Figs.  102,  103. — Caterpillars  of  the  small  Tortoise-shell  Butterfly  (Vanessa  urticee) 
undergoing  their  metamorphosis. 

their  existence.  It  is  to  Reaumur,  again,  that  science  is  indebted 
for  the  most  charming  and  valuable  observations  on  this  point. 
He  got  together  a  great  number  of  caterpillars  of  the  small 
Tortoise-shell  Butterfly  (Vanessa  urticce),  black,  prickly  cater- 
pillars which  are  common  on  the  stinging- net  tie,  where  they  live 
in  companies,  and  suspend  themselves  by  the  tail.  When  the 
time  approaches  at  which  the  caterpillars  of  this  species  ought  to 
undergo  their  transformations,  they  usually  leave  the  plant  which 
had  up  to  that  time  served  them  as  food.  After  having  wandered 
about  a  little,  they  find  themselves  in  some  convenient  spot,  where 
they  hang  themselves  up  head  downwards  (Figs.  102,  103). 

In  order  to  hang  itself  in  this  way,  the  caterpillar  begins  by 
covering,  with  threads  drawn  in  different  directions,  a  pretty 
large  extent  of  the  surface  of  the  body  against  which  it  wishes 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  151 

to  fix  itself.  After  having  covered  it  thus  with  a  kind  of  thin 
cobweb,  it  adds  different  layers  of  threads  on  a  small  portion  of 
this  surface,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  upper  one  is  always  smaller 
than  that  upon  which  it  is  laid.  In  this  manner  a  small  hillock 
of  silk  is  formed,  the  tissue  of  which  is  not  at  all  compact.  It 
resembles  an  assemblage  of  loose  or  badly  interwoven  threads. 
The  membranous  feet  of  the  caterpillar  are  armed  with  hooks  of 
different  lengths,  with  the  aid  of  which  it  suspends  itself.  By 
alternate  movements  of  contraction  and  elongation  of  its  body, 
it  pushes  its  hindermost  legs  against  the  hillock  of  silk,  presses 
against  it  the  hooks  of  its  feet  so  as  to  get  them  better  entangled, 
and  lets  its  body  fall  in  a  vertical  position. 

It  remains  hanging  thus,  often  for  twenty-four  hours,  during 
which  time  it  is  occupied  in  a  difficult  task,  that  of  splitting  its 


Figs.  104,  105.— Pupae  of  the  small  Tortoise-shell  Butterfly  freeing  themselves  from 
the  Caterpillar  skin. 

skin.  In  order  to  effect  this,  it  incessantly  curves  and  recurves  its 
body  (Fig.  102),  until  at  last  a  split  appears  on  the  skin  of  the 
back,  and  through  this  split  emerges  a  part  of  the  body  of  the 
pupa.  This  acts  as  a  wedge,  and  little  by  little  the  split  widens 
from  the  head  to  the  last  of  the  true  legs,  and  beyond  them. 
Then  the  opening  is  sufficient  to  allow  of  the  chrysalis  drawing 
out  the  fore  part  of  its  body  from  the  envelope,  which  it  im- 
mediately does.  To  set  itself  entirely  free,  the  chrysalis  lengthens 
and  shortens  itself  alternately  (Fig.  105).  Each  time  that  it 


152  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

shortens  itself,  and  when  it  consequently   distends   the  part   of 
its  body  which  is  outside  the  old  skin,  that  part  acts  against  the 
edges  of  the  slit,   and  gradually  pushes  the   old   skin  upwards. 
Thus  the  caterpillar  skin  ascends,  its  plaits  are 
pushed  nearer  and  nearer  together,  and  it  is  soon 
reduced  to   a  packet  so  small  that  it  covers  only 
the  end  of  the  tail  of  the  chrysalis  (Fig.  106). 

But  here  comes  the  culminating  point,  the 
most  difficult  part  of  the  operation.  The  pupa, 
which  is  shorter  than  the  caterpillar,  is  at  some 
distance  from  the  silky  network  to  which  it 
must  fix  itself;  it  is  only  supported  by  that 
extremity  of  the  caterpillar's  skin  which  had  not 

Butterfly    completing   -,  ,..  T.     -,  .  ,  , 

the  operation  of  cast-  been  split  open.     It  nas  neither  legs  nor  arms, 
and  yet  it  must  set  itself  free  from  this  remaining 
part  of  the  skin,  and  reach  the  threads  to  which  it  is  to  suspend 
itself. 

The  supple  and  contractile  segments  of  the  chrysalis  serve  for 
the  limbs  which  are  wanting  to  it.  Between  two  of  these  seg- 
ments, as  with  a  pair  of  pincers,  the  insect  seizes  a  portion  of  the 
folded  skin,  and  with  such  a  firm  hold  that  it  is  able  to  support 
the  whole  of  its  body  on  it.  It  now  curves  its  hinder  parts 
slightly,  and  draws  its  tail  entirely  out  of  the  sheath  in  which  it 
was  enclosed.  It  then  reposes  for  an  instant  only,  for  it  has  not 
yet  finished  the  laborious  operation  of  its  deliverance.  It  must 
free  itself  entirely  from  the  dry  skin  which  surrounds  the  ex- 
tremity of  its  body. 

The  insect  curves  the  part  which  is  below  its  tail  in  such  a 
manner  that  that  part  can  embrace  and  seize  the  packet  to  which 
it  holds  on.  It  then  gives  to  its  body  a  violent  shock,  which 
makes  it  spin  round  many  times  on  its  tail,  and  that  with  great 
rapidity.  During  all  these  pirouettes  the  chrysalis  acts  against 
the  skin  ;  the  hooks  of  its  legs  fray  the  threads,  and  "break  them 
or  disentangle  themselves  from  them.  Sometimes  the  threads  do 
not  break  at  once.  Then  the  animal  recommences  its  revolutions 
in  an  opposite  direction,  and  this  time  it  is  almost  certain  to 
succeed.  Reaumur,  however,  saw  a  pupa  which,  after  having 
tired  itself  in  vain  in  its  endeavours  to  get  entirely  free  of  its 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  153 

old  skin,  despairing  of  ever  being  able  to  manage  it,  abandoned 
it  where  it  was  so  solidly  fixed.  We  represent  (Fig.  107),  rather 
magnified,  the  chrysalis  arrived  at  its  final  state,  and  suspended  to 
a  branch  of  a  tree  by  a  network  of  silk.* 

We  come  now  to  the  mode  of  suspension 
employed  by  those  caterpillars  which,  after 
having  fixed  themselves  by  the  tail,  strengthen 
the  support  by  means  of  a  small  silk  cord 
passed  round  their  body. 

It  is  again  to  Reaumur,  that  indefatigable 
observer  of  the  habits  of  insects,  that  we  go 
for  the  details  of  this  manner  of  suspension. 
According  to  Reaumur,  these  caterpillars 
make  and  put  on  this  belt  in  three  different  Fig-  107._Pupa  divested  of 
ways.  But  of  these  three  ways  the  simplest,  the  larval  skilu 
and  the  least  liable  to  meet  with  accident,  is  that  employed  by 
the  larva  of  the  Cabbage  Butterfly  (Pier is  drassicce).  When 
the  time  for  its  metamorphosis  is  only  a  few  days  distant,  one 
may  observe  this  caterpillar  engaged  in  stretching  threads 
from  different  parts  of  the  case  in  which  it  is  confined.  It  then 
chooses  a  spot,  which  it  covers  entirely  with  threads,  some  more 
compact  than  the  others,  and  disposed  in  layers,  which  cross 
each  other  in  different  directions.  These  threads  form  a  thin 
white  cloth,  against  which  the  belly  of  the  caterpillar  and 
that  of  the  chrysalis  are  later  applied.  Very  soon  we  see  a 
small  hillock  of  silk  rising.  The  caterpillar  hooks  itself  on 
to  this  by  the  nails  of  its  hinder  feet,  and  sets  to  work  to  secure 
itself. 

To  understand  this  process,  it  suffices  to  know  that  after  having 
lengthened  its  body  to  a  certain  point,  this  caterpillar  can  turn 
back  its  head  on  to  its  back,  and  reach  to  the  fifth  ring, 
having  its  three  pairs  of  true  legs  in  the  air.  But  without 
putting  the  caterpillar  into  such  an  unnatural  position,  let  us  take 
it  in  a  position  in  which  it  is  simply  bent  sideways  in  such  a 
manner  that  its  head,  with  the  thread- spinning  apparatus,  which 
is  below,  can  be  applied  opposite  and  pretty  near  to  one  of  the 

*  It  has  been  remarked  that  only  those  whose  continuance  in  the  pupal  state  is 
short,  undergo  their  metamorphosis  in  this  apparently  inconvenient  position. — ED. 


154 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


legs  belonging  to  the  first  pair  of  membranous  legs.  Our  cater- 
pillar begins  by  fixing  on  this  point  a  thread,  which  is  the  first 
of  those  that  are  intended  to  tie  it  up  securely. 

"  This  thread,"  says  the  illustrious  author  of  the  "  Memoires 
pour  mistoire  des  Insectes,"  "must  pass  over  the  caterpillar's 
body,  and  be  attached  by  its  other  end  near  the  leg  corresponding 
to  that  near  which  the  first  end  was  fastened.  To  spin  the 
thread  the  proper  length,  and  at  the  same  time  to  fix  it  in  its 


Kig.  108.— Caterpillars  of  the  Cabbage  Butterfly  (Pieris  brassica?). 

proper  place,  the  caterpillar  has  only  to  bring  round  its  head  to 
the  fifth  segment.  The  thread  will  be  drawn  from  the  spinning 
apparatus  as  the  head  advances  over  half  the  circumference  of 
the  circle  which  it  has  to  describe ;  and  when  it  has  described  this, 
there  will  only  remain  for  it  to  stick  fast  the  second  end  of  the 
thread  against  the  support.  Thus  the  head,  which  was  at  first  placed 
against  one  of  the  legs,  advances  little  by  little  on  the  outline 
of  the  fifth  ring  as  far  as  to  its  middle  (Fig.  108).  It  is  the 
facility  the  caterpillar  has  of  reversing  its  body  that  enables  it  to 
make  its  head  perform  this  journey  ;  in  proportion  as  it  moves 
it  over  the  circumference  of  the  ring,  it  twists  its  body.  And  at 
last,  when  it  has  brought  it  over  the  top  of  the  segment,  its  body  is 
exactly  folded  in  two ;  it  draws  it  little  by  little  from  this  situation 
by  bending  towards  the  other  side,  and  by  causing  its  head  to  pass 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


155 


Fig.  109. — Caterpillar  of  the  Pieris  brassieae. 


gently  over  the  last  quarter  of  the  circle.  At  last  the  caterpillar 
finds  itself  bound  on  the  second  side  ;  the  head  rests  on  the 
thread-covered  plane,  and  the  insect  fixes  the  second  end  of  the 
thread." 

It  has  only  to  repeat  the  same  manoeuvre  as  many  times  as 
there  are  threads  wanted  to  make  a  strong  band.  But  each 
thread  embraces  the  head, 
or  rather  the  lower  part 
of  the  head,  for  it  knows 
how  to  make  each  thread 
it  spins  glide  into  the 
bend  or  crease  of  its 
neck  by  a  little  movement  of  its  head.  It  must  disengage  this 
head  from  under  the  band,  not  a  difficult  opera- 
tion. It  causes  it  to  slide  along  the  threads  near 
one  of  the  places  where  they  are  fixed,  and  it  is 
then  in  the  position  indicated  by  the  foregoing 
engraving  (Fig.  109). 

About  thirty  hours  after  the  caterpillars  have 
succeeded  in  making  themselves  fast,  they  have 
completed  their  transformation  into  pupse  (Fig. 
110).  In  that  the  pupa  of  the  above-men- 
tioned caterpillar  is  seen  in  two  different  posi- 
tions, and  kept  down  by  the  same  band  which  first 
supported  the  caterpillar. 

Those  caterpillars  which  construct  cocoons,  make 
them  of  silk  and  other  substances.  These  cocoons 
are,  for  the  most  part,  oval  or  elliptical,  some- 
times boat- shaped,  and  ordinarily  white,  yellow,  or 
brown  in  colour.  The  threads  may  very  slightly 
adhere  together,  or  be  closely  united  by  a  gummy 
substance  with  which  the  caterpillar  lines  the  in- 
terior of  the  cocoon,  and  which  it  expels  from  the 
anus.  Some  cocoons  are  composed  of  a  double  envelope,  others  are 
of  an  uniform  texture.  Some  are  of  a  tissue  so  close  that  they 
entirely  hide  the  chrysalis  contained  within  ;  others  form  a  very 
light  covering,  through  which  the  chrvsalis  can  be  easily  perceived 
(Fig.  HI). 


Fie.  110.— Pupae  of 
Pieris  brassicie. 


156 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


Among  caterpillars  that  make  a  very  slight  cocoon,  some,  as  the 
Catocalas,  gather  together  two  or  three  leaves  into  a  ball,  to 
protect  them.  Others  strengthen  their  cocoons, 
and  render  them  opaque  by  adding  earth,  or  other 
substances,  often  obtained  from  their  own  bodies. 
Some,  after  having  spun  their  cocoon,  cast  forth 
through  the  anus  three  or  four  masses  of  a  matter 
resembling  paste,  which  they  apply  with  their 
head  to  the  inside  of  the  cocoon,  and  which,  dry- 
ing quickly,  becomes  pulverulent.  Others  employ 
for  the  same  purpose  the  hairs  with  which  their 
bodies  are  covered. 
The  larva  of  Acronycta  aceris  (Fig.  113)  is  covered  with  tufts  of 


Fig.  111.— Cocoon, 
after  Keaumur. 


Fig.  112.  —  Larvae  of  Catocala  fraxini. 


yellow  hair.     Reaumur  made  these  caterpillars  work  under  his 
own  eye  in  glass  vases.     They  make  the  layer  which  is  to  form 


Fig.  113.— Larva  of  Acronycta  aceris. 


the  exterior  surface  of  their  shell  or  cocoon,  of  pure  silk,  and  when 
it  is  thick  enough,  tear  out  their  hair,  now  from  one  place,  now 
from  another.  But  we  will  leave  the  illustrious  observer  to 


LEPIDOPTEKA.  157 

relate  this  operation  himself,  which  must  without  doubt  be  pain- 
ful to  the  poor  animal : —  * 

"  Its  two  teeth  are  the  pincers  the  caterpillar  uses  in  seizing 
a  portion  of  one  or  other  of  the  tufts  of  hair ;  and  when  it 
has  seized  it,  it  tears  it  out  without  much  difficulty.  It  at  once 
places  this  against  the  tissue  it  has  already  commenced,  in  which 
it  entangles  it  at  first  simply  by  pressure ;  it  fixes  it  then 
more  securely  by  spinning  over  it.  It  does  not  leave  off  tearing 
out  its  hairs  till  it  has  entirely  stripped  them  off.  When  the 
caterpillar  has  taken  between  its  teeth  and  torn  out  a  whole 
tuft  of  hair,  the  head  carries  it  and  deposits  it  on  some  part  of 
the  lower  surface  of  the  cocoon ;  but  it  does  not  leave  the  hairs 
of  such  a  large  parcel  together.  The  next  moment  one  sees 
its  head  moving  about  very  quickly  ;  then  taking  a  portion  of 


Fig.  114. -Larva  of  Acronycta  aceris.  Fig.  115,-Larva  of  Acronycta  aceris  taken 

niit  rif  its  r>nr>nrm. 


the  hairs  from  the  little  heap,  it  distributes  them  about  on  the 
neighbouring  parts  of  the  cocoon.  If  one  opens  one  of  these 
shells  before  the  caterpillar  has  become  a  chrysalis,  the  larva, 
which  is  quite  naked,  and  which  was  only  known  by  its  hair,  can 
be  no  longer  recognised." 

The  caterpillar  of  the  Tiger  Moth  or  Woolly  Bear,  called  by 
Reaumur  Marte  or  Herisson  (Chelonia  caja,  Fig.  116),  is 
covered  with  long  inclined  hairs.  This  caterpillar  also  makes 
use  of  its  hairs  for  strengthening  the  tissue  of  its  cocoon  ;  but 
whether  it  feels  the  pain  more  acutely  than  the  first,  or  whether 
it  has  much  more  to  suffer,  it  does  not  tear  out  its  hairs.  It  adopts 
another  system  ;  it  cuts  them.  The  caterpillar  is  then  enveloped 


158 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


on  all  sides  in  its  hair,  which  is  to  serve  it  in  the  construction  of 
its  cocoo*n. 


Fig.  116.— Larva  of  Cheloniacaja. 

Another  species  uses  its  hairs  in  the  composition  of  its  cocoon  ; 
but  it  adopts  an  entirely  peculiar  way  of  tearing  them  out,  when 

the  tissue  of  its  cocoon  has  become 
a  species  of  network  of  pretty 
closely  packed  rings.  Reaumur 
one  day  saw  one  part  of  the 
cocoon  bristling  with  hairs.  These 
were  the  hairs  of  a  part  of  the 
back  of  the  caterpillar,  which  it 
had  pushed  through  the  rings  of 
its  cocoon.  The  caterpillar  then 
moved  about  as  if  rubbing  this 
part  of  its  back  successively  in 
opposite  directions  against  the 
interior  surface  of  the  cocoon.  In  this  way  the  hairs  were  very 
soon  torn  out  and  kept  retained  in  the  rings  of  the  cocoon.  This 
cocoon  is  then  bristly  inside,  and  does  not  at  all  suit  the  future 
chrysalis,  which  does  not  like  to  be  touched  by  any  but  smooth 
surfaces.  The  caterpillar  then  works  with  its  head,  to  lay  the 
hairs  along  the  interior  surface,  and  to  keep  them  down  by  threads, 
which  it  draws  over  them.  At  another  time  Reaumur  saw  a  small 
hairy  caterpillar,  which  appeared  to  live  on  lichens,  using  its  hair 
in  another  way.  It  tore  them  out  to  make  its  cocoon,  but  it 
was  not  to  lay  them  down  and  work  them  into  a  tissue.  It  set 
them  straight  up  like  the  stakes  of  palisades,  on  the  circumference 
of  an  oval  space,  in  which  it  was  placed.  Shut  up  within  this  pali- 
sade, it  spun  a  light  white  web.  This  web  supports  the  hairs, 


fit 


Fig.  117.— Larva  of  Chelonia  caja  forming 
its  cocoon. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


159 


causing  the  greater  part  of  them,  to  curve  at  their  upper  extremity, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  sort  of  cradle. 

It  remains  for  us  now  to  speak  of  the  caterpillars  that  make 
their  cocoons  of  silk,  together  with  other  materials.     Reaumur  saw 


Fig.  118.— Small  Caterpillar  of  the  Pimpernel. 


Fig.  119. — Cocoon  of  the  same. 


the  Pimpernel  caterpillar  arranging  and  sticking  together  the 
leaves  of  that  plant,  and  spinning  underneath  them  a  thin  cocoon 
of  white  silk  (Fig.  119). 

Some  caterpillars  make  their  cocoons  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  even  with  earth.  These  cocoons  are  spherical  or 
oblong.  Their  exterior  is  more  or  less  well  shaped,  but  their 
interior  is  always  smooth,  polished,  shining  like  moistened  earth, 
worked  up  together  into  a  kind  of  paste,  and  carefully  smoothed 
out.  This  cocoon  is  besides  lined  with  a  covering  of  silk  of 
variable  thickness.  The  shell  is  not  made  of  earth  alone ;  threads 
of  silk  may  be  seen  in  it,  crossing  each  other,  and  binding 
together  the  particles  of  earth. 

These  subterranean  workers  do  not  allow  their  proceedings  to 
be  easily  observed.  Reaumur  was  fortunate  enough  to  be  able  to 
discover  the  artifice  they  employ  in  the  construction  of  their  shells 
or  cocoons.  The  Cucullia  verbasd  (Fig.  120)  makes  itself  a 
thick  and  very  compact  cocoon  of  the  form  of  an  egg  (Fig.  121). 
Reaumur  took  one  of  these  out  of  the  ground  before  it  was 
fortified.  He  tore  it  partially  open,  and  placed  it  in  a  glass 
vase  containing  sand,  but  the  poor  insect  was  not  long  in  repair- 
ing the  disorder  caused  by  the  rough  hand  of  our  naturalist.  It 
only  took  four  hours  to  restore  its  cocoon  to  its  former  state. 

"It  began,"  says  Reaumur,  "by  coming  almost  entirely  out, 


160  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

and  left  only  its  hinder  part  within.     It  moved  its  head  forwards 
as  far  as  was  necessary  to  enable  it  to  seize  a  particle  of  earth. 


Fig.  120. — Cucullia  verbasci. 

As  soon  as  it  had  got  its  load,  it  re-entered  the  interior  of  the 
cocoon.  It  deposited  the  grain  of  earth,  and  came  out  again  im- 
mediately, as  it  did  at  first,  to  pick  up  another  grain,  which  it 
carried  likewise  into  the  interior  of  the  cocoon.  This  operation 

it  continued  for  more  than  an  hour. 
....  The  provision  of  materials 
being  got  together,  the  caterpillar 
now  devoted  its  whole  attention  to 
working  them  up.  It  began  by 
spinning  over  one  part  of  the  edges 
of  the  opening.  After  having  put 

Fig.  121.— Cocoon  of  the  Cucullia  verbasci.  *  °  °    • 

over  this  a  small  band  01  very  loose 

web,  the  caterpillar's  head  left  the  opening,  the  insect  went  right 
back  again  into  its  cocoon,  and  the  head  returned  to  the  opening 
loaded  with  a  little  grain  of  earth,  which  it  entangled  in  the  silky 
threads.  It  then  entangled  in  them  two  or  three,  or  a  greater 
number  of  grains,  according  to  the  quantity  of  threads  it  had 
spun.  It  bound  them  into  these  with  other  threads,,  after 
which  it  drew  threads  over  the  edges  of  another  part.  By 
thus  going  round  the  whole  rim  of  the  opening,  and  by  carrying 
and  fixing  the  grains  of  earth  in  the  threads  which  were  the  last 
stretched  over  the  opening,  it  rendered  its  diameter  smaller  and 
smaller/' 

It  was  by  working  with  its  head  that  our  mason  gave  to  the 
new  wall  of  its  cocoon  the  necessary  curvature.  It  was  interest- 
ing to  know  how,  as  it  could  no  longer  put  out  its  head,  it  could 
stop  up  the  orifice. 


LEPIDOPTEEAs  161 

"  It  knew  how  to  change  its  manoeuvres.  When  the  opening 
was  reduced  to  a  circle  of  only  a  few  lines  in  diameter,  it  drew 
threads  from  a  point  on  the  circumference  to  another  on  the 

other  side Thus  the  opening  was  covered  in  with  a  rather 

open  net- work As  soon  as  this  web  was  finished,  it  got  a 

grain  of  earth  (which  it  had  laid  by  until  it  was  wanted),  brought 
it  up,  placed  it  against  the  web,  and  by  pushing  and  pressing  it, 
made  it  pass  through  the  web  until  it  reached  the  exterior. 
And  so  in  succession  the  whole  of  the  web  was  covered  with 

grains  of  earth It  was  not  contented  with  rendering  the 

exterior  of  this  place  exactly  like  the  rest  of  the  shell ;  it  fortified 
it  thoroughly ;  it  added  to  it,  one  after  another,  layers  of  grains 
of  earth  till  it  was  as  solid  and  as  thick  as  the  rest." 

The  larva  of  Pyralis  corticalis,  which  is  found  on  oak  trees, 
in  the  month  of  May,  exhibits  to  what  point  these  little  insects 
carry  their  industry  in  the  construction  of  their  cocoons,  in 
the  choice  of  their  materials,  in  their  manner  of  working  them 
up,  and  in  the  forms  they  cause  them  to  assume.  Reaumur 
one  day  saw  this  caterpillar  on  a  small  branch,  between  two  tri- 
angular appendages  (Figs.  122,  123).  This  was  the  beginning  of  a 
cocoon.  Each  triangular  blade  was  composed  of  a  great  number 
of  small,  thin,  rectangular  plates,  taken  from  the  bark  of  the 
twig.  The  caterpillar  detached  with  its  teeth  a  small  band  of 
bark,  and  fitted  it  on,  and  adjusted  it  with  admirable  precision 
against  the  edge  already  formed.  It  then  fixed  it  securely  with 
silk  threads.  Reaumur  saw  this  caterpillar  work  and  raise  in 
this  way  a  large  blade  during  an  hour  and  a  half. 

"When  one  sees/'  he  says,*  "an  insect  which,  to  con- 
struct a  cocoon,  begins  by  collecting  together  an  infinite  number 
of  small  plates  of  bark  in  order  to  compose  of  them  two  flat 
triangular  blades;  which,  to  gain  its  end,  takes  means  that 
seem  so  roundabout,  although  they  are  the  most '  suitable  and 
the  quickest  it  could  adopt,  one  is  very  much  tempted  to  con- 
sider such  an  insect,  when  one  sees,  it  thus  acting,  possessed  of 
reason." 

These  two  blades  are  at  last  transformed  into  a  regular  cocoon. 
The  little  animal,  which  is  at  the  same  time  architect,  cabinet- 

*  Mem.  12,  vol.  i.,  p.  487. 
M 


162 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


maker,  and  weaver,  arranges  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a 
hollow  cone,  which  it  only  remains  for  it  to  shut.  Reaumur 
calls  this  sort  of  cocoon  or  shell,  la  coque  en  bateau,  the  boat- 


V. 


Figs.  122,  123. — Cocoon  of  Pyralis  corticalis  (magnified,  proper  size  |  inch). 

shaped  cocoon.  Some  caterpillars  weave  cocoons  of  the  same 
form  with  pure  silk. 

To  bring  this  subject  to  an  end,  we  will  mention  the  industry 
of  the  Puss-moth  (Dicranura  vinula),  and  that  of  a  small  Tineina, 
which  eats  the  barley  stored  away  in  our  granaries. 

The  larva  of  the  Puss-moth  employs  in  the  construction  of  its 
shell  the  wood  of  the  tree  on  which  it  has  lived.  It  bites  it 
up,  and,  mixing  it  with  a  glutinous  fluid  which  it  secretes  from 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  163 

its  mouth,  reduces  it  to  a  sort  of  paste,  which  it  then  uses  in  the 
formation  of  an  envelope,  of  such  hardness  that  a  knife  can  hardly 
cut  into  it. 

The  Tineina  lines  the  interior  of  a  grain,  of  which  it  has 
previously  devoured  the  contents,  with  a  coating  of  silk,  and 
divides  it  thus  into  two  different  chambers.  In  one  of  these  it 
is  to  change  into  a  pupa ;  in  the  other,  it  places  its  excrement. 
And  so  the  little  careful  architect  constructs  its  house  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  find  in  it  tranquillity,  cleanliness,  and  comfort. 

When  caterpillars  have  not  within  their  reach  the  materials 
they  are  in  the  habit  of  employing,  like  good  workmen,  they 
content  themselves  with  what  they  can  get.  Reaumur  supplied  a 
caterpillar  which  was  forming  its  cocoon  of  pieces  of  paper  of 
which  the  box  was  made  in  which  it  was  imprisoned. 

What  an  extraordinary  condition,  what  a  strange  phase  of 
vitality  does  the  chrysalis  present  to  us — a  being  occupying  the 
middle  state  between  the  caterpillar  and  the  perfect  insect !  How 
little  does  it  resemble  that  which  it  previously  was,  and  what 
it  will  become  !  In  appearance  it  is  scarcely  a  living  being ;  it 
takes  no  nourishment,  and  has  no  digestive  organs ;  can  neither 
walk  nor  drag  itself  along,  and  hardly  bends  the  joints  of  its 
body.  The  outside  skin  of  the  chrysalis  appears  to  be  cartila- 
ginous ;  it  is  generally  smooth,  although  some  species  have  hairs 
scattered  over  their  bodies. 

We  distinguish  in  chrysalides  two  opposite  sides.     The  one  is 


Fig.  124.— A  conical  pupa.  Fig.  125.— Pupa  having  angular  projections. 

the  insect's  back,  the  other  its  under  side.    On  the  upper  part  of  the 
latter  (Fig.  124)  we  perceive  various  raised  portions,  formed  and 

M2 


164  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

arranged  like  the  bands  round  the  heads  of  mummies  ;  the  back 
is  plain  and  rounded  in  a  great  number  of  pupae.  But  a  great 
many  others  have  on  the  upper  part,  along  the  edges  which 
separate  the  two  sides,  little  humps,  eminences  broader  than  they 
are  thick,  ending  in  a  sharp  point  (Fig.  125). 

The  head  of  the  angular  pupaB  terminates  sometimes  in  two 
angular  parts,  which  diverge  from  each  other  like  two  horns 
(Fig.  126).  In  some  other  cases  they  are  curved 
into  the  form  of  a  crescent.  These  appendages  some- 
times give  to  the  pupa  the  appearance  of  a  mask, 
especially  as  an  eminence  placed  on  the  middle  of 
the  back  is  rather  like  a  nose,  and  the  small  cavi- 
ties may  represent  the  eyes  (Fig.  125). 

The  colours  of  angular  pupae  attract  our  attention. 
^ome  are  superbly  covered ;  they  appear  to  be 
Butterfly.  wrapped  in  silk  and  gold.  Others  have  only  spots  of 
gold  and  silver  on  their  belly  or  their  back.  All,  however,  have 
not  this  remarkable  splendour,  nor  these  metallic  spots.  Some  are 
green,  yellow,  and  spotted  with  gold.  Generally,  they  are  brown. 
Reaumur  has  shown  that  this  golden  colour  is  not  due,  as  was 
thought  for  a  long  while,  to  colouring  matter,  but  to  a  little  whitish 
membrane,  placed  under  the  skin,  which  reflects  the  light  through 
the  thin  outer  pellicle,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  optical 
illusion  which  imparts  to  the  robe  of  the  chrysalis  the  golden 
hues  of  a  princess  in  grand  costume.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters, 
Reaumur  proves  literally,  in  the  case  of  chrysalides.* 

Let  us  add  that  the  chrysalis  remains  thus  superbly  dressed  as 
long  as  it  is  tenanted,  but  loses  its  colour  as  soon  as  the  butterfly 
has  quitted  it. 

The  cone-shaped  pupae  belong  to  the  twilight  and  night-flying 
Lepidoptera,  and  to  those  butterflies  whose  caterpillars  are  onisci- 
form,  or  in  shape  resembling  a  wood-louse.  They  are  generally 
oval,  rounded  at  the  head,  and  more  or  less  conical  at  the  lower 
end.  Their  colour  is  generally  of  an  uniform  chestnut  brown. 
What  a  mystery  is  that  accomplished  in  the  transition  from  the 

*  The  word  is  derived  from  %pv(rog,  golden  ;  for  that  reason  pupa  is  a  better  word 
than  chrysalis,  as  this  only  strictly  applies  to  a  very  small  number  ;  for  the  same 
reason  aurelia  is  a  bad  word. — ED. 


LEPIDOPTEKA. 


165 


chrysalis  to  the  perfect  state  !  Those  great  changes  from  the  larva 
state  to  that  of  the  pupa,  and  from  the  pupa  to  that  of  the  imago, 
are  accomplished  with  such  rapidity,  that  these  phenomena  were 
looked  on  as  sudden  metamorphoses,  like  those  related  in  mytho- 
logy. It  has  been  thought  also  that  there  was  in  these  changes 
from  one  state  to  another  a  sort  of  resurrection.  There  is  here 
neither  sudden  metamorphosis,  nor,  as  we  will  show,  resurrection. 
In  fact,  the  chrysalis  is  a  living  being  ;  it  indeed  shows  its  vitality 
by  exterior  movements.  Under  the  old  skin  of  a  caterpillar 
about  to  moult,  under  the  envelope  which  is  soon  to  be  cast  off, 
the  new  integuments  are  being  prepared.  There  is  here  then  only 
a  change  of  dress. 

Some  days  before  the  moult,  split  the  caterpillar's  skin,  and  you 
will  find  already  beneath  it  the  skin  which  is  to  take  its  place. 
If  some  days  before  the  transformation  of  the  ^  t  b 

caterpillar  into  a  chrysalis,  one  opens  it, 
the  rudiments  of  wings  and  antennae  may 
be  discovered.  If  one  is  contented  with 
examining  a  chrysalis  on  the  outside  only, 
all  the  parts  of  the  future  insect  can  be  dis- 
tinguished under  the  skin  :  the  wings,  the  legs, 
the  antennoc,  the  proboscis,  &c.  ;  only,  these 
parts  are  folded  and  packed  away  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  chrysalis  can  make  no  use 
of  them.  It  could  not,  moreover,  make  use 
of  them  on  account  of  their  incomplete  develop- 
ment. Fig-  127  shows,  after  Heaumur,*  a 
chrysalis  magnified  and  seen  from  its  lower 
side,  on  which  we  observe  :  —  a,  the  wings  ;  b  b, 
the  antennae  ;  t,  the  trunk  or  proboscis. 


There  is  a  moment  when  these  parts,  pressed  Fig. 

lar 


m.  - 


the 

rge  Tortoise-shell  Butter- 

One  against  each  other,  and  as  it  were  swathed     fly  (  ?««««*&  poiyMoros), 

°  .  magnified,    seen  from  the 

up  like  a  mummy,  are  very  easily  seen,  for  lower  side. 
they  are,  as  we  may  say,  laid  bare.  This  moment  is  that  in  which 
the  pupa  has  just  quitted  the  caterpillar's  skin.  It  is  then 
still  soft  and  tender.  Its  body  is  moistened  with  a  liquid,  which, 
drying  rapidly,  becomes  opaque,  coloured,  and  of  a  membranous 
*  Tome  i.  p.  382,  planche  26,  Fig.  6. 


166  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

consistency.  The  result  is  that  the  parts  which  did  not  cohere 
in  the  least  when  the  chrysalis  made  its  first  appearance,  are 
fastened  together,  so  that  though  one  could  at  first  observe  them, 
through  a  layer  of  transparent  fluid,  they  are  hidden  now  under 
a  sort  of  veil  or  cloak.  It  is  necessary  to  seize  then  the  moment 
of  the  birth  of  the  chrysalis,  to  observe  it  accurately. 

On  examining  the  pupa  before  the  liquid  which  pervades  these 
parts  has  had  time  to  dry,  one  finds  that  it  resembles  the  perfect 


Fig.  128. — Chrysalis  of  the  Large  Tortoise-shell  Butterfly  (Vanessa  polychloros}  whose  different 

parts  have  been  opened  before  they  were  fastened  down. 

(a,  wings,    b  b,  antennas,     f,  trunk  or  proboscis. ) 

insect.  One  can  indeed  then  separate  from  each  other  all  the  ex- 
terior parts  which  belong  to  the  imago.  One  recognises  the  head, 
which  is  then  resting  on  the  thorax  ;  the  two  eyes  and  the  antenna) 
(Fig.  128),  which  are  brought  forward  like  two  ribbons ;  the 
wings  also  brought  over  the  thorax,  but  these  are  separated  arti- 
ficially in  the  drawing  we  have  given  after  Reaumur ;  *  and  lastly 
in  the  space  left  between  the  wings,  the  six  legs,  and  the  body  of 
the  insect. 

To  sum  up  :  the  pupa,  when  it  approaches  the  period  for  being 
hatched,  is  only  wrapped  in  the  pupal  envelope.  Directly  it  has 
strength  enough  to  rid  itself  of  its  wrapping,  the  insect  frees  itself 

*  Tome  i.  p.  382,  planche  26,  Fig.  7. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  167 

from  its  fetters.     It  flies  away,  brilliant  and  free,  and  its  many- 
coloured  wings  glitter  in  the  sun. 

The  duration  of  the  pupa  state  is  variable,  according  to  the 
species  and  the  temperature.  Ueaumur  placed  in  a  hot-house, 
in  the  month  of  January,  some  pupae  which,  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  things,  would  not  have  been  hatched  till  the  month 
of  May,  and  a  fortnight  afterwards  the  images  had  appeared. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  shut  up  some  pupae  in  an  ice-house  during 
the  whole  of  a  summer,  and  thus  retarded  their  being  hatched 
by  a  whole  year.  The  influence  of  the  temperature  on  the  period 
of  emerging,  and,  consequently,  the  influence  of  the  seasons  on 
the  length  of  this  period,  are  completely  brought  to  light  by 
these  experiments.* 

We  will  now  see  how  the  insect  delivers  itself  from  the  last 
skin.  To  quit  the  pupa  case  is  not  so  laborious  an  operation  as 
it  was  for  the  same  insect  to  quit  the  caterpillar's  skin.  This  is 
because  the  pupa  case  is  drier ;  it  does  not  adhere  to  every  part  of 
the  body,  but  is  brittle.  Those  which  are  enclosed  in  a  cocoon  free 
themselves  of  the  pupa  in  the  shell  itself.  So  as  to  witness  the  last 
operation  which  we  have  to  consider,  it  may  be  opened,  and  the 
pupa  drawn  out  of  it  with  care.  If  then  placed  in  a  box,  one  sees 
the  metamorphosis  take  place.  To  study  this  last  evolution  which 
is  now  occupying  our  attention  more  at  his  ease,  Reaumur  covered 
a  large  extent  of  the  wall  of  his  study  with  pupae  of  the  Vanessa 
polychloros  and  other  species. 

When  the  parts  of  the  body  of  the  insect  have  attained  to  a 
certain  degree  of  solidity  within  the  envelope,  it  has  no  great  dif- 
ficulty in  making  the  thin  and  friable  membrane  which  surrounds 
it  split  in  different  places.  If  it  even  distends  itself  or  moves,  a 
small  opening  is  made  in  the  dried  skin.  If  it  reiterates  its  move- 
ments, the  opening  increases  in  size,  and  very  soon  allows  the 
imago  to  emerge.  It  is  on  the  middle  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
thorax  that  the  envelope  begins  to  split.  The  split  extends  over 
the  middle  of  the  forehead  and  back.  The  pieces  of  the  thorax 
open,  separate  themselves  from  the  other  parts  to  which  they  were 

*  They  hardly  seem  from  later  experiments  to  be  so  fully  explained.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  many  insects  remain  in  this  state  a  variable  time ;  the  Small  Eggar 
(Bombyx  lanestris)  sometimes  as  many  as  seven  years.— ED. 


168 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


fixed,  and  the  insect  can  take  advantage  of  the  opening  which 
is  made,  and  escape.  Little  by  little  also  it  advances  its  head. 
The  head  is  the  first  out  of  the  old  skin,  and  the  insect  sets  itself 
entirely  free. 

This  occupies  rather  a  long  time ;  for  one  must  remember  that, 
under  the  pupal  envelope,  its  legs,  its  antennae,  its  wings,  and 
many  other  parts,  are  enclosed  in  special  cases.  These  peculiar 
circumstances  show  that  the  animal  has  much  trouble  and  must 
^employ  some  time  in  setting  free  all  the  parts. 

At  last  our  prisoner  has  come  out  of  its  narrow  cell,  and  is 
delivered  from  its  old  covering.  "What  poet  can  describe  to  us 
the  sensations  of  this  charming  and  frail  creature  which  has  just 
risen  from  the  tomb,  and  for  the  first  time  is  enjoying  the  splendid 
light  of  day,  the  radiant  sky,  and  the  flowers 
redolent  with  intoxicating  perfumes,  which  are 
inviting  it  to  kiss  and  caress  them ! 

The  wings  strike  one  most.  They  are  very 
small  at  the  time  of  birth. 

Fig.  129  represents,  after  Reaumur,*  a  moth 
at  the  moment  in  which  it  has  just  emerged 
from  the  pupa.  But  at  the  end  of  a  short 
period  the  wings  become  developed  ;  only  they 
are  wrinkled,  as  Fig.  130,  given  by  Reaumur, 

Fig.  129.— Moth  just 

emerged.  represents. 

Reaumur  having  taken  between  his  fingers  a  very  short  wing 
of  a  butterfly  which  was  just  hatched,  drew  it 
about  gently  in  all  directions.  He  succeeded  thus 
in  giving  it  the  whole  extent  it  would  have 
assumed  naturally.  According  to  Reaumur  the 
wing  of  a  butterfly  just  born,  which  appears  so 
small,  is  really  already  provided  with  all  its  parts, 
only  it  is  folded  and  refolded  on  itself.  He  sup- 
poses that  what  his  hands  did  to  lengthen  the 
butterfly's  wing,  is  done  naturally  by  the  liquids 
which  are  about  the  insect  which  has  just  emerged, 
and  whose  wings  are  no  longer  confined  in 
their  cases,  At  the  time  of  its  birth  the  wings  are  flat  and 

*  Tome  i.  p.  654,  planche  46,  Fig.  1. 


LEPIDOPTEKA.  169 

thick ;  as  they  grow,  little  by  little  they  spread  themselves  out 
and  become  curled  up.  When  they  are  completely  developed  and 
flattened,  the  wings  become  firm  and  hard  imperceptibly,  and  this 
firmness  extends  at  the  same  time  to  the  whole  of  the  body. 

Figs.  131  and  132,  borrowed,  like  the  preceding,  from  the  14th 
memoir   of   Reaumur    (sur   la   transformation  des    chysalides  en 


Fig.  131. — Moth  whose  wings  are  developing.        Fig.  132. — Moth  whose  wings  are  developed. 

papillons),  show  the  states  through  which  the  wings  of  the  same 
moth  pass,  before  they  are  thoroughly  developed. 

Those  pupae  enclosed  in  cocoons  free  themselves  entirely  or 
in  part  from  their  old  skin,  in  the  shell  itself;  but  the  imago 
is  still  a  prisoner.  It  has  broken  through  a  first  enclosure;  it 
must  open  itself  a  way  through  the  second.  How  does  it  manage 
to  bore  through  the  often  very  solid  walls  of  this  second  prison, 
so  as  to  regain  its  liberty  ?  Reaumur  stated  that  in  the  Lackey 
moth  (Bombyx  neustria)  the  head  is  the  only  instrument  of  which 
the  insect  makes  use  in  opening  a  passage,  the  compound 
eyes  then  acting  like  files.  These  files  cut  the  very  fine  threads 
of  which  the  cocoon  is  composed,  and  as  soon  as  the  end  of  the 
cocoon  is  pierced  through,  the  insect  uses  its  thorax  like  a  wedge, 
to  enlarge  the  hole.  It  very  soon  manages  to  get  its  two  front 
legs  out,  fixes  itself  by  them  onto  the  outside,  and  little  by  little 
emerges  from  its  prison. 

THE  PERFECT  INSECT. 

Who  does  not  admire  the  extraordinary  splendour,  the  vivacity, 
the  prodigious  variety  of  colours  of  these  brilliant  inhabitants  of 


170 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


the  air  ?  Some  amateurs  have  devoted  to  the  purchase  of  certain 
butterflies  large  sums  of  money.  "  Diamonds/  '  says  Reaumur  on 
the  subject,  "  have  perhaps  beauties  no  more  real  than  those  of  a 
butterfly's  wings  ;  but  they  have  a  beauty  which  is  more  acknow- 
ledged by  the  world  in  general,  and  which  is  more  recognised  in 
commerce."  The  essential  and  distinctive  character  of  butterflies 
and  moths  makes  them  very  easily  recognisable  among  all  other 
insects.  All  have  four  wings,  and  these  wings  differ  from  those  of 
other  insects,  in  that  they  are  covered  with  scales,  which  commu- 
nicate to  them  the  brilliant  colours  with  which  they  are 
decorated.  It  is  these  scales  which  adhere  to  the  fingers  when 
one  seizes  one  of  these  charming  creatures. 

For  a  long  time  this  dust  was  thought  to  be  formed  of  very 
small  feathers,  but  Reaumur  showed  that  it  is  composed  of  little 


v  »  i  o  <P 


V    V 


Fig.  133.— Different  forms  of  the  scales  of  Butterflies,  after  Reaumur. 

scales.  Their  form  varies  singularly,  as  we  may  see  in  Fig.  133, 
borrowed  from  the  memoirs  of  Reaumur,*  which  represents 
the  different  forms  of  the  scales  which  cover  the  wings  of 
Lepidoptera.  M.  Bernard  Deschamps  has  closely  studied  them. 
According  to  this  naturalist,  they  are  composed  of  three  mem- 
branes, or  plates,  superposed  one  on  the  other,  of  which  the  first 
is  covered  with  granulations  of  a  rounded  form,  which  give  to 
these  scales  their  splendid  and  varied  colours ;  the  second  scale 

*  Tome  i.  planche  7,  Fig.  1  a  23. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


171 


is  covered  with  silk  forming  sometimes  curious  designs  ;  the  third 
blade,  viz.,  that  which  is  applied  to  the  membrane  of  the  wing, 
has  the  peculiar  property  of  reflecting  colours  the  most  brilliant 
and  the  most  varied,  although  the  surface  of  the  scales  visible  to 
the  eye  are  often  dull  and  colourless. 

"  Supposing,"  says  M.  Bernard  Deschamps,  "  that  a  painter  was 
possessed  of  colours  rich  enough  to  present  on  canvas  with  all 
their  splendour,  gold,  silver,  the  opal,  the  ruby,  the  sapphire,  the 
emerald,  and  the  other  precious  stones,  which  the  East  produces, 
that  with  these  colours  he  formed  all  the  shades  which  could 
result  from  their  combination,  one  might  affirm  without  the  chance 
of  contradiction,  that  he  would  have  none  of  these  colours  and  of 
their  various  shades,  whatever  might  be  the  number,  which  could 
not  be  discovered  by  the  microscope  on  part  of  the  scales  of  the 
Lepidoptera,  which  nature  has  been  pleased  to  conceal  from  our 
gaze." 

Each  of  these  scales  adheres  to  the  membrane  of  the  wing  by  a 
small  tube,  which  is  solidly  fixed  to  it.  Reaumur  has  called  our 
attention  to  the  admirable  arrangement  of  these  scales,  which  are 
disposed  like  those  of  fish, 
that  is  to  say,  in  such  a 
manner  that  those  of  a  row 
shall  partially  overlap  those 
in  the  following  one. 

In  Fig.  134,  representing 
a  portion  of  the  wing  of  the 
Saturniapavonia-major  mag- 
nified, which  we  borrow  from 
Reaumur's  Memoir,  the 
scales  are  arranged  in  rows  ; 
isolated  scales,  and  the  points 
where  other  scales  were 
fixed  before  they  were  made  fall  off,  are  represented. 

The  membranous  frame  which  supports  the  coloured  scales  of 
butterflies  and  moths  is  well  worth  a  moment's  consideration. 
It  consists  of  two  membranes  intimately  united  by  their  in- 
terior surfaces,  and  divided  into  many  distinct  parts  by  horny, 
fistulous  threads,  more  or  less  ramified,  which  seem  intended  to 


Fig.  134. — Portion  of  the  wing  of  a  Moth  (Saturnia 
pavonia-major),  magnified. 


172  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

support  the  two  membranes  mentioned  above,  and  which  branch 
out  from  the  base  to  the  edge  of  the  wing.  Their  number,  count- 
ing from  the  exterior  edge,  is  not  always  the  same  in  the  upper 
and  lower  wings.  It  varies  from  eight  to  twelve. 

With  its  large  and  light  wings,  the  butterfly  can  fly  for  a  long 
time.  But  this  flight  is  not  in  the  least  regular,  it  is  not  made 
in  a  straight  line.  When  the  insect  has  to  go  some  distance,  it 
flies  alternately  up  and  down.  The  line  it  takes  is  composed  of 
an  infinity  of  zig-zags,  going  up  and  down,  and  from  right  to  left. 
This  irregularity  of  its  flight  saves  the  little  insect  from  falling  a 
prey  to  birds.  "  I  saw  one  day  with  pleasure,"  says  Reaumur, 
"  a  sparrow  which  pursued  in  the  air  a  butterfly  for  nearly  ten 
minutes  without  being  able  to  catch  it.  The  flight  of  the  bird 
was  nevertheless  considerably  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  butter- 
fly, but  the  butterfly  was  always  higher  or  lower  than  the  place 
to  which  the  bird  flew,  and  where  it  thought  it  would  catch  it." 

But  let  us  leave  the  wings  to  pass  on  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
butterfly.  These  other  parts  are  the  thorax  or  chest,  the  body  or 
abdomen,  and  the  head. 

The  thorax  is  solidly  put  together  so  as  to  bear  the  move- 
ments of  the  wings  and  legs.  These  latter  are  composed,  as  in 
other  insects,  of  five  parts  :  the  hip,  the  trochanter,  the  thigh, 
the  leg,  and  the  tarsus. 

Many  butterflies  have  all  their  six  legs  of  equal  length.  In 
others,  the  two  fore  legs  are  very  small,  and  are  not  suited  for 


Fig.  135.— Leg  of  Butterfly  armed  with  hooks.  Fig.  136.— Leg  not  suitable  for  walking. 

walking.  In  others,  again,  they  are  as  it  were  abortions,  deprived 
of  hooks,  very  hairy,  and  fixed  on  to  the  front  edge  of  the  thorax 
like  a  tippet. 

This  difference  of  structure  may  be  seen  in  Figs.  135  and 
136,  one  of  which  represents,  after  Reaumur,  a  leg  unsuited 
for  walking,  very  hairy,  and  terminated  in  a  sort  of  brush 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  173 

resembling  the  end  of  a  tippet ;  and  the  other  a  leg  furnished  with 
hooks. 

The  abdomen  has  the  form  of  an  elongated,  or  in  the  majority 
of  species,  an  almost  cylindrical  oval.  It  is  composed  of  five 
segments,  each  formed  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  ring,  joined  together 
by  a  membrane.  The  first  are  larger  than  the  others,  and  generally 
overlap  the  edges,  which  gives  to  this  part  of  the  body  the  power 
of  dilating  considerably. 

We  must  dwell  longer  on  the  head.  It  is  generally  rounded,  com- 
pressed in  front,  longer  than  it  is  broad,  and  furnished  with  fine  or 
scaly  hairs.  The  important  organs  of  which  this  part  is  the  seat, 
are  the  eyes,  the  antennae,  the  palpi,  and  the  proboscis  or  trunk. 

The  eyes  are  more  or  less  spherical,  surrounded  by  hairs  and 
composed  of  innumerable  facettes.  One  often  sees  on  these, 
colours  as  various  as  those  of  the  rainbow.  But  the  colour 
which  serves  as  a  base  to  all,  is  black  in  some,  grey  in  others  ; 
then  again  there  are  different  gold  or  bronze-colours  of  the  greatest 
splendour,  inclining  sometimes  to  red,  sometimes  to  yellow,  some- 
times to  green.  On  the  compound  eye  of  a  butterfly  have  been 
counted  as  many  as  17,325  facettes.  Simple  eyes  or  stemmata 
are  moreover  observed  in  certain  species,  and  are  generally  more 
or  less  hidden  by  scales.  The  antennas  are  situated  near  the 
upper  rim  or  border  of  each  eye.  Reaumur  has  pointed  out  six 
principal  shapes.  One  terminates  in  a  little  knob,  and  belongs  to 
the  butterflies.  The  others  are  variously  shaped,  and  belong  to 
the  moths.  Some  are  prismatic,  or  like  beading.  And  lastly 
others  are  shaped  like  feathers.  We  represent  in  Fig.  137  the 
different  forms  of  the  antennae,  which  Reaumur  collected  together 
in  plates  8  and  9  of  his  fifth  memoir.* 

The  palpi  are  four  in  number,  two  maxillary  and  two  labial. 
The  first  are  generally  excessively  small ;  one  can  only  ascertain 
their  existence  by  the  aid  of  a  strong  magnifying  glass ;  the 
second  are  in  general  very  apparent,  straight,  cylindrical,  covered 
with  scales,  and  formed  of  three  joints,  of  which  the  last  is  often 
very  small  and  sometimes  very  pointed.  They  also  sometimes 
bristle  with  stiff  or  silky  hairs. 

The  trunk  is  placed  exactly  between  the  two  eyes.     As  long  as 

*  "  Sur  les  parties  exterieurs  des  papillons,"  tome  i.  p.  197. 


174 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


the  butterfly  does  not  want  to  take  nourishment,  the  trunk  remains 
rolled  in  a  spiral.     Some  are  so  short,  that  they  scarcely  make  one 


Fig.  137.— Antennae  of  Lepidoptera. 

turn  and  a  half  or  two  turns ;  some  larger  sized  make  three  turns 
and  a  half  or  four  turns :  lastly,  some  very  long  are  curled  as 
many  as  eight  or  ten  times. 

This  is  how  the  butterfly  makes  use  of  its  trunk  :  When  it  is 
fluttering  round  a  flower,  it  will  very  soon  settle  on  or  quite 
close  to  it.  It  then  brings  it  forward  entirely  or  almost  en- 
tirely unrolled ;  very  soon  afterwards  it  almost  straightens  it, 
directs  it  downwards  and  plunges  it  into  the  flower.  Sometimes 
it  draws  it  out  a  moment  after,  curves  it,  twists  it  a  little,  and 
sometimes  even  curls  .it  partially  up.  Immediately  it  straightens 
it  again  to  plunge  it  a  second  time  into  the  same  flower.  It 
repeats  the  same  manoeuvre  seven  or  eight  times,  and  then  flies 
on  to  another. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  175 

This  trunk,  of  which  the  butterfly  makes  such  good  use,  is 
composed  of  two  fillets  more  or  less  long,  horny,  concave  in  their 
interior  surfaces,  and  fastened  together  by 
their  edges.  When  cut  transversely,  one 
sees,  according  to  Eeaumur,*  that  the  in- 
terior is  composed  of  three  small  rings. 
Consequently,  there  are  three  canals  in  the 
trunk,  one  central,  the  other  two  lateral 
(Fig.  138).  Are  all  these  three  used  to  con- 
duct the  juice  of  flowers  into  the  butterfly's 
body  ?  Eeaumur  has  made  some  very  in- 
teresting observations  on  this  subject,  by 
observing  a  moth  which  was  sucking  a  lump  Fig" 
of  sugar,  whilst  its  portrait  was  being  taken. 

"I  held  in  one  hand,"  says  Eeaumur,  "a  powerful  magnifying 
glass,  which  I  brought  near  to  that  part  of  the  trunk  I  wished  to 
examine ;  I  was  sometimes  half  a  minute,  or  nearly  a  minute, 
without  perceiving  anything,  after  which  I  saw  clearly  a  little 
column  of  liquid  mounting  quickly  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
trunk.  Often  this  column  appeared  to  be  intersected  by  little 
balls  which  seemed  to  be  globules  of  air  which  had  been  drawn  up 
with  the  liquid.  This  liquid  ascended  thus  during  three  or  four 
seconds,  and  then  ceased.  At  the  end  of  an  interval  of  a  greater 
number  of  seconds,  or  sometimes  after  an  interval  as  short,  I  saw 
some  fresh  liquid  mounting  up  along  the  trunk.  But  it  was  straight 
up  the  middle  of  the  trunk  that  it  seemed  to  ascend. 

"  The  Author  of  nature  has  given  to  insects  means  of  working, 
which,  though  very  simple,  we  cannot  divine,  and  which  often 
we  are  not  able  even  to  perceive.  Whilst  I  was  observing  the 
trunk  of  our  butterfly,  between  the  columns  of  liquid  which  I  saw 
ascending,  there  were,  but  more  rarely,  times  when  I  saw,  on  the 
contrary,  liquid  descending  from  the  base  of  the  trunk  to  the  point. 
The  descending  liquid  occupied  half  or  two- thirds  of  the  tube.  It 
was  no  longer  difficult  to  perceive  how  the  butterfly  is  able  to 
nourish  itself  on  honey,  the  thickest  syrup,  and  even  the  most 
solid  sugar.  The  fluid  it  sends  down  is  apparently  very  liquid  ; 
it  drives  against  the  sugar,  moistens,  and  dissolves  it.  The 

*  Planche  9,  Fig.  10,  oe  memoire,  "  Sur  les  parties  exterieurs  des  papillons." 


176  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

butterfly  pumps  this  liquid  up  again  when  it  is  charged  with  sugar, 
and  conducts  it  along  as  far  as  the  base  of  its  trunk,  and  beyond 
it." 

The  life  of  the  perfect  insect  is  generally  very  short.  Like 
nearly  all  other  insects,  they  die  as  soon  as  they  have  propagated 
their  species.  The  female  lays  her  eggs,  which  vary  in  shape, 
on  the  plant  which  is  to  nourish  her  progeny.  The  colour  is 
also  very  various,  and  passes  through  all  sorts  of  shades.  At  the 
moment  they  are  laid,  many  are  covered  with  a  gummy  substance, 
insoluble  in  water,  which  serves  to  stick  them  on  the  plant. 

In  some  species,  the  mother  lays  her  eggs  on  the  trunks  of  trees, 
and  covers  them  with  down  or  with  the  hairs  which  cover  her 
abdomen,  so  as  to  preserve  them  from  cold  and  damp.  She  may 
also  hide  them  entirely  under  a  whitish,  foamy  substance.  Some 
do  not  lay  more  than  a  hundred  eggs ;  others  lay  some  thousands. 

To  bring  the  history  of  the  Lepidoptera  to  an  end,  it  only 
remains  for  us  to  give  a  sketch  of  their  classification,  and  to  point 
out  some  species  remarkable,  either  on  account  of  their  beauty, 
or  from  their  utility. 

We  see  during  the  day  butterflies  flying  in  our  gardens,  in 
meadows  full  of  flowers,  or  in  the  alleys  of  woods.  Towards 
evening,  at  the  sombre  hour  of  twilight,  the  stroller  is  some- 
times surprised  to  see  pass  near  him  large  moths,  with  a  heavy 
and  unequal  flight,  or  if  one  go  into  a  garden  on  a  beautiful 
calm  summer's  night,  bearing  a  light,  one  sees  a  crowd  of  moths 
flying  from  all  parts  towards  it. 

It  is  on  account  of  these  different  hours  at  which  the  Lepidoptera 
show  themselves,  that  naturalists  for  a  long  time  divided  them 
into  diurnal,  crepuscular,  and  nocturnal.  This  division  was  simple, 
convenient,  and  seemed  founded  on  nature.  Unfortunately,  the 
night  fliers  of  the  old  authors  do  not  all  fly  by  night ;  some 
species,  classed  by  the  old  naturalists  among  the  crepuscular  or 
nocturnal,  show  themselves  in  the  very  middle  of  the  day,  seek- 
ing their  food  in  hottest  rays  of  the  sun.  In  the  regions  near 
the  poles  they  appear  during  the  day,  and  in  other  countries  they 
are  more  or  less  friends  of  the  twilight. 

So  as  not  to  multiply  methodical  divisions,  we  will  confine  our- 
selves to  classing  the  Lepidoptera  into  two  sections. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  177 

The  first  section  contains  those  which  fly  during  the  day,  which 
have  club-shaped  antennae,  and  which  ha^e  their  four  wings  entirely 
free,  and  standing  perpendicularly*  when  the  insect  is  at  rest. 
They  are  called  Butterflies,  or  Rhopalocera.  This  section  is 
divided  into  a  number  of  families,  which  comprise  many  genera. 
We  will  content  ourselves  with  calling  the  attention  of  the  reader 
to  some  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  groups,  and  to  those  species 
which,  either  on  account  of  their  beauty  or  abundance,  strike,  or 
ought  to  strike,  the  attention  of  every  one. 

In  the  family  of  the  Papilionida,  we  will  mention  the  genera 
Papilio,  to  which  belong  the  Swallow-tailed  butterfly  (Papilio 
machaon],  Papilio  podalirius,  &c.,  and  Parnassius,  of  which  we 
will  notice  Parnassius  Apollo,  and  Parnassius  mnemosyne. 


Fig.  139. — Swallow-tailed  Butlerfly  (Papilio  machaon.) 

The  Swallow-tailed  butterfly  is  found  plentifully  in  the  fens  of 
Cambridgeshire,  and  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  very  commonly  in 
the  environs  of  Paris.     It  is  seen  from  the  beginning  of  May  till 
towards  the  middle  of  June ;  then  from  the  end'  of  July  till  Sep- 
tember.    It  frequents    gardens,   woods,    and   above   all  fields  of 
lucerne.     It  is  easily  taken  when  settled,  particularly  at  sunset. 
This    is    one   of   the    largest   and    the   most    beautiful   of  the 
*  There  are  exceptions  to  this. — ED. 
N 


178 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


European  butterflies.  The  wings  are  variegated  with  yellow  and 
black;  the  eyes,  antennse,  and  trunk  are  black.  The  body  is 
yellow  on  the  sides  and  underneath,  and  black  above.  The  front 
wings  have  rounded  edges ;  the  hind  ones,  on  the  contrary,  are 
notched,  and  one  of  these  notches  is  prolonged  into  a  sort  of  tail. 


Fig.  140. — Larva  of  Papilio  machaon. 


The  first  are  black,  spotted  and  striped  with  yellow ;  the  second 
have  their  upper  part  and  middle  yellow,  with  some  touches  only 


Fig.  141.— Papilio  alexanor. 


of  black.    Near  the  margin  is  a  broad  black  band,  dusted  with 
blue ;  lastly,  six  yellow  spots  in  the  form  of  a  crescent  run  along 


LEPIDOPTERA.  179 

the  border,  and  end  in  a  magnificent  eye  of  a  reddish  colour,  bor- 
dered with  blue. 

The  caterpillar  of  this  species  is  large,  smooth,  and  of  a  beau- 
tiful light  green,  with  a  transverse  black  band  on  each  ring. 
These  bands  are  sprinkled  with  orange  spots.  It  lives  on  the 
fennel,  carrot,  and  other  Umbelliferse.  If  teased  it  thrusts  from 
the  first  ring  after  the  head  a  fleshy  orange- coloured  ten- 
tacle. The  chrysalis  attached  to  a  stalk  of  grass  is  sometimes 
light  green,  sometimes  greyish. 

In  the  low  Alps,  on  the  plains  near  the  environs  of  Digne  and 
Barcelonette,  is  found  in  the  months  of  May  and  July  the  Papilio 


Fig.  142.— The  scarce  Swallow-tailed  Butterfly  (Papilio podalirius). 

alexanor  (Fig.  141),  and  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia  is  found  the  Papilio 
hospiton,  a  rare  species,  nearly  related  to  our  Swallow- tailed 
butterfly,  but  which  we  will  here  content  ourselves  with  men- 
tioning. 

The  Papilio  podalirius  (Fig.  142)  is  in  form  very  analogous  to 
Papilio  machaon.  It  is  of  a  rather  pale  yellow  colour,  marked 
with  black  as  if  singed.  The  lower  wings  have  tails  longer  and 

N2 


180  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

narrower  than  those  of  the  latter,  and  are  magnificently  orna- 
mented with  blue  crescent- shaped  spots  and  an  orange-coloured 
eye  bordered  below  with  blue.  This  beautiful  species  is  not  rare 
at  Montmorency,  at  He- Adam,  and  at  St.  Germain.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  taken  in  England,  and  is  called  the  scarce  Swallow- 
tail, but  its  capture  is  considered  as  very  questionable.  It 
appears  for  the  first  time  at  the  end  of  April,  and  for  the  second 


Fig.  143. — Paniassius  Apollo. 

in  July  and  August.  The  Parnassius  Apollo  (Fig.  143)  is  a 
beautiful  butterfly  which  appears  in  June  and  July,  and  is  found 
commonly  enough  in  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Cevennes. 
Its  wings  are  of  a  yellowish  white.  The  upper  part  of  the  fore 
wings  presents  five  nearly  round  black  spots;  the  base  and  the 
costa  or  front  edge  of  these  wings  are  sprinkled  with  black 
atoms.  The  upper  part  of  the  hind  wings  presents  two  eyes  of 
a  vermilion  red,  the  inner  border  furnished  with  whitish  hairs 
amply  dotted  with  black,  and  marked  towards  the  extremity  with 
two  black  spots.  The  under  part  of  the  fore  wings  is  very 
similar  to  the  upper.  But  the  under  part  of  the  hind  wings 
presents  four  red  spots  bordered  by  black,  forming  a  trans- 
verse band  near  the  base.  The  body  is  black,  furnished  with 
russety  hairs,  and  the  antennae  white  with  the  club  black. 

The  larva  of    the  Apollo  lives  on   saxifrages.        To  effect  its 
transformation  it  surrounds  itself  with  a  slight  network  of  silk 
in  which  are  confined    one    or    more    leaves.        This  caterpillar 
is  thick,   smooth,   cylindrical,  and  covered    with    small   slightly 
hairv  warts  and  ornamented  on  the  first  ring1  with  a  fleshy  tentacle 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  181 

in  the  shape  of  a  Y.  The  chrysalis  is  conical,  sprinkled  over 
with  a  bluish  efflorescence  resembling  the  bloom  on  a  plum.  The 
Parnassius  mnemosyne  is  found  in  the  month  of  June  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Dauphine,  in  Switzerland,  Sicily,  Hungary,  Sweden,  and 
in  the  Pyrenees. 

In  the  family  of  the  Pieridce,  we  will  mention  many  species 
remarkable  in  different  ways,  such  as  Pieris  cratcegi,  the  Black- 
veined  white,  Pieris  brassicce,  the  Cabbage  butterfly,  Pieris  napi, 
Pieris  callidice,  Anthocharis  cardamines,  the  Orange-tip, 
Rhodocera  (Gonepteryx)  rhamni,  and  Colias  edusa,  or  Clouded 
yellow.  Pieris  cratcegi  is  white  both  above  and  below  ;  the  veins 
only  of  the  wings  are  black,  and  become  a  little  broader  at  the 
edge  of  the  upper  wings.  These  black  veins  on  a  rather  trans- 
parent white  ground  make  this  butterfly  resemble  a  gauze  veil, 
hence  it  French  name,  Le  Gaze.  It  flies  in  spring  and  summer  in 
meadows  and  gardens,  but  is  not  generally  common  in  England. 
In  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Travels  in  the  North  of  Russia/' 
Pallas  relates  that  he  saw  insects  of  this  species  flying  in  great 
numbers  in  the  environs  of  Winof  ka,  and  that  he  at  first  took 
them  for  flakes  of  snow.  The  Pieris  cratcegi  fixes  itself  at  sunset 
on  flowers,  where  it  is  easily  taken  by  the  hand.  During  the  day, 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  difficult  to  catch.  The  larva,  black  at 
first,  afterwards  assumes  short  yellow  and  white  hairs,  but  it  varies 
much.  They  live  in  companies,  under  a  silky  web  in  which  they 
pass  the  winter.  The  leaves  of  the  hawthorn,  the  sloe,  the  cherry 
tree,  and  of  many  other  fruit  trees  serve  them  for  food.  The 
pupa,  yellow  or  white,  and  sometimes  of  both  colours  with  little 
stripes  and  spots  of  black,  is  angular  and  terminated  in  front  by 
a  blunt  point. 

The  Pieris  brassier  (Fig.  144),  or  Cabbage  butterfly,  is  perhaps 
the  commonest  of  all  butterflies.  From  the  beginning  of  spring 
till  the  end  of  autumn,  one  sees  it  flying  about  everywhere,  in 
the  gardens,  sometimes  near  and  almost  in  the  interior  of  towns. 
It  is  of  a  dull  white,  spotted  and  veined  with  black,  and  it  can 
be  seen  at  a  long  distance,  when  flitting  from  flower  to  flower, 
in  a  meadow  or  garden.  And  so  children  wage  desperate  war 
against  this  flying  prey.  The  pursuit  of  the  Cabbage  butterfly 
through  the  alleys  of  parks,  along  the  outskirts  of  woods,  or  on  the 


182  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

green  turf  of  meadows,   is  the  first  joy  and  the  first  passion  of 
children  in  the  country. 


Fig.  144. — Pieris  brassicae. 

The  caterpillar  (Fig.  145)  is  of  a  yellowish  green,  or  rather 
greenish  yellow,  with  three  yellow  longitudinal  stripes  separated 
by  little  black  points,  from  each  of  which 
springs  a  whitish  hair.  It  lives  in  groups  on 
the  cabbages  in  gardens,  and  on  many  other 
Cruciferse.  It  is  so  voracious  that  it  consumes 
in  a  day  more  than  double  its  own  weight,  and  as 
it  multiplies  very  quickly,  commits  great  ravages 
in  the  vegetable  garden.  Its  pupa  (Fig.  145)  is 
of  an  ashy  white,  spotted  with  black  and  yellow. 

The  Pieris  rapa,  or  Small  white  butterfly, 
differs  but  little  from  the  preceding  except  in 
size.  The  caterpillar,  which  lives  on  the  cab- 
bage, turnip,  mignonette,  nasturtium,  &c.,  is 
green,  with  three  yellow  lines.  It  does  not 
do  these  much  harm.  In  France  it  is  called 

le  ver    du   cceur   (the    heart- worm),   because    it- 
Fig.  145.  —  Caterpillar  .  7 

and     chrysalis    of  penetrates  in  between  leaves  pressed  closely  to- 

Pieris  brassiere. 

gether. 

The  Pieris  napi,  the  Green-veined  white,  is  very  like  the  two 
preceding,  but  the  wings,  the  lower  ones  especially,  have  under- 
neath broad  veins  or  bands  of  a  greenish  colour.  The  Pieris 
callidice,  the  wings  of  which  are  white  spotted  with  black,  is 
common  in  the  Alps  of  France,  in  Savoy  and  Switzerland,  and 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


183 


in  the  Pyrenees.  Its  caterpillar  lives  near  the  regions  of  perpetual 
snow,  on  small,  cruciferous  plants. 

The  Orange-tips  have,  in  the  males,  the  extremity  of  the  upper 
wings  of  a  beautiful   orange  yellow.     The  rest  of  the  wings  is 


Fig.  146. — Pieris  napi. 


Fig.  147. — Anthocharis  curdamines. 


white  in  the  only  British  species  (Fig.  147),  which  is  to  be  seen  in 
meadows  from  the  end  of  April  till  the  end  of  May,  and  sulphur- 
coloured  in  some  other  species. 

One  species  extremely  common,  and  which  appears  with  but  short 
interruption  from  the  beginning  of  spring  till  the  end  of  autumn, 
is  the  Brimstone  butterfly  (Rhodocera  (Goncpteryx)  rkamni).  The 
wings  are  a  lemon  yellow,  with  an  orange-coloured  spot  in  the 
middle  of  each,  and  the  front  border  terminated  in  a  series  of  very 
small  iron-coloured  spots.  The  body  of  the  butterfly  is  black 
with  silvery  hairs. 

The  Colias  edusa,  or  Clouded  yellow,  so  called  from  the  colour 
of  the  upper  part  of  its  wings,  is  not  uncommon  in  meadows 
and  fields  in  early  autumn  throughout  Europe.  The  upper  side 
of  the  wings  is  of  a  marigold  yellow  ;  the  upper  ones  having 
towards  the  middle  a  large  spot  of  black.  At  the  extremity  of 
each  wing  is  a  broad  black  band,  continuous  in  the  case  of  the 
male,  interrupted  by  yellow  spots  in  the  female.  The  back  of  the 
body  is  yellow  ;  the  legs,  as  well  as  the  antennae,  rosy. 

The  family  of  the  Lycaida  comprises  a  great  number  of  species, 
some  of  which  we  will  mention. 

The  Thecke,  or  Hair-streaks,  which  the  French  call  Petit  Porte- 
queue,  on  account  of  the  tails  which  grace  the  hind  margin  of  the 
hind  wings,  inhabit  woods,  their  larvae  feeding  according  to  the 
species  on  the  birch,  the  oak,  the  plum-tree,  the  bramble,  &c. 


184 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


The  Thecla  betulce  (Fig.  148),  or  Brown  hair-streak,  is  somewhat 
rare  in  this  country. 


Fig.  148.— Thecla  betulze. 


The  Purple   hair-streak    (Thecla   quercus,     Fig.   149),  which 
Geoffrey  calls  the  "  Porte-queue  bleu  a  une  bande  blanche"  is  not 


Fig.  149.— Thecla  quercus. 

rare  in  woods ;  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  catch,  as  it  flies,  nearly 
always  by  couples,  at  the  top  of  trees.  We  still  further  represent 
here  the  Black  hair- streak  (Thecla  pruni,  Fig.  150),  and  the  Green 
hair- streak  (Thecla  rubi,  Fig.  151). 

In  the  meadows  are  found  the  Copper-butterflies;  butterflies 
with  wings  of  a  bright,  tawny  colour,  with  black  marks  on  the  upper 
side.  Such  is  the  Polyommatus  (Lyccena)  phlaeas  (Fig.  152),  which 
is  very  common  from  the  end  of  May  until  late  in  the  autumn.  The 


LEPIDOPTERA.  185 

upper  part  of  the  wing   is   coppery,  spotted   with   black.     The 


Fig.  150.— Thecla  pruni. 

under   side  of   a   grey   colour,    sprinkled   with    small  eyes,  and 


Fig.  151. -Thecla  rubi. 


bordered  by  a  zone  of  tawny  spots.     Linnaeus  counted  forty-two 
little  black  eyes  on  the  under  side  of  the  wings. 


Fig.  152.— Small  Copper  (Po/yommatus  (Lyceena)  pkteeas). 

"We  also  figure  Polyommatus  (Lyccena)  virgaurea  (Fig.  153),  and 


186 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


Polyommatus  (Lyccena)  gordius  (Fig.  154),  neither  of  which  occurs 
in  this  country. 


Fig.  153. — Polyommatus  (Lycgeua)  virgaurese. 


In  the  meadows,  the  gardens,  and  the  lucerne  and  clover  fields, 
are  found  the  charming  Blue  butterflies,  the  wings  on  the  upper 


Fig.  154.-  Polyommatus  (Lyeaena)  gordius. 

side,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  blue  in  the  case  of  the  males, 
brown  in  the  females. 

They  comprise  the  genus  Lyccena,  or,  as  it  is  frequently  called, 
Polyommatus*  though  that  name  is  now  generally  given  to  the 
preceding.  We  will  content  ourselves  here  by  giving  drawings  of 

*  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  remark  that  although  both  these  generic  names 
are  applied,  sometimes  to  the  one,  sometimes  to  the  other  of  these  genera,  the  genus 
named  in  the  text  Polyommatus  and  that  called  Lyccena  are  never  considered  identical. 
When  either  name  is  applied  to  the  one,  it  is  not  at  the  same  time  applied  to 
the  other. — ED. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


187 


a  few  species  of  the  genus,  namely,  the  Lyc&na  (Polyommatus) 
Corydon,  or  blue  Argus  (Fig.  155),  which  is  not  uncommon  where- 
ever  there  is  chalk,  in  May  and  August ;  the  Lyccena  (Polyommatus) 


Fig.  155.— Lyeaeua(Polyommatus)  Corydon. 


battus,  or  brown  Argus  (Fig  156),  which  does  not  occur  here ;  the 
Lycaena  (Polyommatus)  agon,  which  flies  about  our  sandy  heaths. 
The  caterpillars  of  this  genus,  as  also  those  of  the  preceding, 


\ 


Fig.  156. — Lycsena  (Polyommatus)  battus. 


Fig.  157.— Lycaena  (Polyommatus)  segon. 


are  broad  and  flat,  resembling  wood-lice,  with  very  short  legs,  and 
are  very  slow  in  their  movements. 

In  the  numerous  family  of  the  Vanessidae  are  placed  the  beau- 
tiful species  known  as  the  large  and  small  Tortoise-shell,  the  Pea- 
cock, &c. 

The  large  Tortoise- shell  butterfly  ( Vanessa  poly chloros,  Fig.  158) 
has  wings  of  a  tawny  colour  above,  and  of  a  blackish  brown  below, 
with  darker  spots,  bordered  by  a  black  band,  with  a  stripe  of 


188  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

yellowish  colour  running  down  the  middle.     It  is  found  in  July 


Fig.  158.— Large  Tortoise-shell  Butterfly  (  Vanessa  polychloros). 

and  September  on  the  oak,  the  elm,  the  willow,  and  many  fruit 
trees. 


Fig.  159.— 'Larva  and  pupa  of  the  large  Tortoise-shell  (  Vanessa  polychloros). 

The  larva  (Fig.  159)  is  bluish  or  brownish,  with  an  orange- 
coloured  lateral  line,  bristling  with  yellowish  hairs.  The  chrysalis, 
which  is  angular,  and  of  a  red  tint,  is  ornamented  with  golden 
metallic  spots. 

We  give  here  a  drawing  of  the  small  Tortoise-shell  ( Vanessa 
urticce,  Fig.  160),  which  resembles  the  preceding,  but  is  smaller. 
Its  caterpillar,  bristly,  blackish,  with  four  yellowish  lines,  lives  in 
companies  on  the  nettle.  The  Peacock  butterfly  (Vanessa  lo, 
Fig.  161)  is  very  easily  recognised  by  the  peacock's  eyes  to  the 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


189 


number  of  four,  one  on  each  wing,  which  have  gained  for  it  the 
name  it  bears.  The  eye  on  the  upper  wings  is  reddish  in  the 
middle,  and  surrounded  by  a  yellowish  circle.  That  on  the 


Fig.  160.— Small  Tortoise-shell  Butterfly  (  Vanessa  urtica). 

lower  ones  is  blackish,  with  a  grey  circle  round  it,  and  contains 
bluish  spots.     The  upper  part  of  the  wings  is  of  a  russety  brown, 


Fig.  161.— Peacock  Butterflj  (  Vanessa  Iu). 

the  under  part  blackish.     This  Vanessa  is  met  with  in  the  woods, 


190  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

in  lucerne  fields,  and  in  gardens.  Its  spiny  caterpillar  is  of 
a  shiny  black  with  white  dots,  and  lives  in  companies  on  nettles. 
The  chrysalis,  at  first  greenish,  then  brownish,  is  ornamented  with 
golden  spots. 


Fig.  162.— Carnberwell  Beauty  ( Vanessa  Antiopn). 

The  Vanessa  Antiopa  (Fig.  162),  one  of  the  greatest  of  entomo- 
logical rareties  in  England,  is  not  very  common  in  the  woods 
about  Paris,  but  it  is  frequently  found  in  the  environs  of  Bordeaux, 
and,  above  all,  at  the  Grande  Chartreuse  (in  the  department  of 
Isere).  The  Parisian  collectors  go  as  far  as  Fontainebleau  in  pur- 
suit of  this  beautiful  species,  with  angular  wings,  of  a  dark  purple 
black,  with  a  yellowish  or  whitish  band  on  the  hind  border  and 
a  succession  of  blue  spots  above  it.  The  caterpillar  is  black,  and 
bristly,  with  red  spots.  It  lives  in  companies  on  the  birch,  the 
aspen,  the  elm,  and  different  kinds  of  willows.  The  pupa  is 
blackish,  sprinkled  with  a  bluish  powder,  and  has  ferruginous- 
coloured  dots.  The  butterfly,  which  emerges  from  the  pupa  in 
July  and  August,  is  found,  after  hybernation,  at  the  end  of 
February  and  until  May.  It  flies  very  rapidly  and  is  very  difficult 
to  catch. 

The  Red  Admiral  butterfly  (Vanessa  Atalanta,  Fig.  163)  has 
bands  of  vermilion  colour  on  the  upper  side  of  its  wings,  which 
are  black  above,  and  variegated  beneath  with  different  colours. 
The  caterpillar  is  bristly  and  blackish,  with  a  succession  of 
spots  of  lemon- colour  on  its  sides.  It  lives  in  solitude  on  the 
stinging-nettle  (Urtica  dioica).  Its  chrysalis  is  blackish,  with 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


191 


golden    spots.       This  magnificent  insect  is   common  at   the  end 
of  summer,  and  easy  to  catch.      If  missed  once  it  comes  back 


Fig.  163.— Ked  Admiral  Butterfly  (  Vanessa  Atalanta). 

again  almost  immediately,  and  almost  alights  on  the  net  of  the 
collector. 

The  Painted  Lady  (Vanessa  (Cynthia)  cardui,  Fig.  164)  owes 
its  vernacular  name  to   the  beauty   of  its  colours.      The  upper 


\ 


Fig.  164.— Painted  Lady  Butterfly  (  Vanessa  (Cynthia)  cardut). 

wings  are  covered  above  with  tawny  spots,  rather  cerise  coloured 
towards   the  interior,  and  with  white  spots  on  the  hind  margin 


192 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


towards  the  tip  of  the  wing;  the  whole  on  a  lightish  ground. 
The  lower  wings  are  of  a  reddish  tawny  colour,  with  many  black 
spots,  a  circular  row  of  which  borders  the  wing.  The  caterpillar  is 
bristly,  brownish,  with  yellow  lateral  broken  lines.  It  lives  in 
solitude  on  many  species  of  thistle,  on  the  artichoke,  the  milfoil  or 
yarrow,  &c.  It  makes  for  itself  a  web,  rather  like  a  spider's  nest, 
and  lives  therein.  The  pupa  is  greyish,  with  numerous  golden 
dots.  The  perfect  insect  shows  itself,  almost  without  interruption, 
from  spring  till  autumn.  It  flies  rapidly,  and  in  certain  seasons  is 
abundant. 

The  Vanessa  (Grapta)  C-album  (Fig.  165),  or  Comma  butter- 
fly, is  not  common  in  this  country.  Above,  its  wings  are  tawny, 

spotted  with  black.  Below,  they 
are  more  or  less  brown,  with 
different  tints,  and  sometimes  a 
little  blue.  On  the  underside  of 
the  lower  wings  is  a  white  spot 
of  the  form  of  a  C.  "  This  spot/' 
says  old  Geoffrey,  "  caused  this 
butterfly  to  have  the  name  of 
gamma  given  to  it,  and  its  colour 
of  Diable  enrhume  (sic),  as  also 
the  singular  cut  of  its  wings,  has 
caused  it  to  be  called  by  others  Robert  le  Diable."  Its  caterpillar 
lives  on  the  nettle,  the  honeysuckle,  the  currant,  the  hazel,  and 
the  elm.  It  is  of  a  reddish  brown,  with  a  white  band  on  the 
back.  Reaumur  calls  it  the  Beadle,  comparing  it  to  the  church 
beadles,  who  usually  dress  in  glaring  colours. 

These  brilliant  VanesscB,  of  which  we  have  just  briefly  described 
some  remarkable  species,  have  been  the  cause  of  superstitious  terror. 
This  must  at  first  sight  seem  incredible,  but  it  has  arisen  thus  : 
When  they  have  just  quitted  the  pupa,  a  red-coloured  liquid  drops 
from  them.  If  a  great  many  butterflies  are  hatched  at  the  same 
time,  and  in  the  same  place,  the  ground  becomes,  as  it  were, 
sprinkled  with  drops  of  blood.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  pretended 
showers  of  blood  which,  at  different  periods,  have  terrified  the 
ignorant,  too  much  imbued  with  religious  superstitions. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  month  of  July,  1608,  one  of  these  sup- 


rig.  165. — The  Comma  Butterfly  (  Vanessa 
C-album). 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  193 

posed  showers  of  blood  fell  on  the  outskirts  of  Aix,  in  Provence, 
and  this  rain  extended  for  the  distance  of  half  a  league  from  the 
town.  Some  priests  of  the  town  deceived  themselves,  or,  desirous 
of  turning  to  account  the  credulity  of  the  people,  did  not  hesitate 
to  attribute  this  event  to  satanic  agency.  Fortunately,  a  learned 
man,  M.  de  Peiresc,  who  was  not  only  well  versed  in  the  know- 
ledge of  ancient  literature,  but  who  was,  moreover,  familiar  with 
the  natural  sciences,  discovered  that  a  prodigious  multitude  of 
butterflies  were  flying  about  in  the  places  which  were  thus  mira- 
culously covered  with  bipod.  He  collected  some  chrysalides  and 
put  them  into  a  box,  and  letting  them  hatch  there,  observed  the 
blood-like  liquid,  and  hastened  to  make  it  known  to  the  friends 
of  the  miraculous.  He  established  the  fact  that  the  supposed  drops 
of  blood  were  only  found  in  cavities,  in  interstices,  under  the  copings 
of  walls,  &c.,  and  never  on  the  surface  of  stones  turned  upwards ; 
and  proved  by  these  observations  that  they  were  drops  of  a  red 
liquid  deposited  by  the  butterflies. 

However,  in  spite  of  the  reassuring  remarks  of  the  learned 
Peiresc,  the  people  in  the  outskirts  of  Aix  continued  to  feel  a 
genuine  terror  at  the  sight  of  these  tears  of  blood  which  stained 
the  soil.  Peiresc  attributes  to  this  same  cause  some  other  showers 
of  blood  related  by  historians,  and  which  took  place  about  the  same 
season.  Such  was  a  shower  of  rain  which  was  supposed  to  have 
fallen  in  the  time  of  Childebert,  at  Paris,  and  in  a  house  in  the 
territory  of  Senlis.  Such  again  was  a  so-called  bloody  shower 
which  showed  itself  towards  the  end  of  June,  during  the  reign  of 
king  Robert  of  France.  Reaumur  points  out  the  large  Tortoise- 
shell  as  being  the  most  capable  of  spreading  these  sorts  of  alarms 
founded  on  a  deplorable  ignorance  and  the  spirit  of  superstition. 

"  Thousands,"  says  he,  "  change  into  pupae  towards  the  end  of 
May  or  the  beginning  of  June.  Before  their  transformation  they 
leave  the  trees,  often  fastening  themselves  to  walls,  and,  making 
their  way  into  country-houses,  they  suspend  themselves  to  the 
frames  of  doors,  &c.  If  the  butterflies  which  come  out  of  them 
towards  the  end  of  June  or  the  beginning  of  July  were  all  to  fly 
together,  there  would  be  enough  of  them  to  form  little  clouds  or 
swarms,  and  consequently  there  would  be  enough  to  cover  the 
stones  in  certain  localities  with  spots  of  a  blood- red  colour,  and  to 


194 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


make  those  who  only  seek  to  terrify  themselves,  and  to  see  prodi- 
gies in  everything,  believe  that  during  the  night  it  had  rained 
blood." 

In  the  family  of  Nymphalida,  we  will  first  mention  the  White 
Admiral  (Fig.  166).  The  upper  side  of  its  wings  is  of  a  dark 
brown,  almost  black,  traversed  in  the  middle  by  a  white  band 

divided  into  spots  very  close 
to  each  other.  The  lower 
part  of  the  wings  is  ferru- 
ginous, with  a  band  and 
spots  of  white,  as  on  the 
upper,  besides  which  it  has 
a  double  hinder  trans- 
verse row  of  black  dots. 
These  dots  are  followed  on 
the  hind  wings  by  some 

white  spots,  and  the  whole  of  the  inner  margin  is  of  a  glossy  ashy 
blue,  with  the  base  spotted  with  black.  This  butterfly  is  not  rare 


Fig.  167. — Limenitis  Camilla. 


in  the  month  of  July  in  woods  in  the  south  of  England,  where  it 
flies  round  and  settles  upon  the  branches  of  the  underwood.  The 
caterpillar  is  of  a  delicate  green,  with  a  lateral  white  stripe,  and 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


195 


rather  bristly.  It  feeds  on  honeysuckle.  The^pupa  is  angular,  of 
greenish  colour  with  golden  spots. 

The  Limenitis  Camilla  (Fig.  167),  of  which  the  black  on  the 
wings  is  shot  with  blue,  is  not  found  in  England. 

In  the  month  of  July,  the  Apatura  ilia,  (iFig.  168),  and  the  Pur- 
ple Emperor  (Apatura  iris),  sylvan  insects  of  strong  flight,  whose 
wings  are  beautifully  shot  with  violet  blue  when  examined 
in  certain  lights, — the  latter  resembling  lUa,  but  wanting  the  eye- 
like  spots  on  the  front  wings, — are  met  with.  Iris  only  is 
found  in  this-  country.  Both  species  occur  in  the  environs  of 
Paris. 

The  Charades  iasiu&(Fig.  169),  which  is  found  along  the  whole 


Fig.  168.  -  Apatura  ilia. 

of  the  Mediterranean  coast,  has  its  lower  wings  terminated  in  two 
points,  whence  the  peasants  call  this-  butterfly  the  Paeha  nith  tno 
tails.  The  upper  part  of  its  wings  is  of  a  brown  colour  of  changing 
hues.  The  hind  margin  of  the  fore  wings  has  along  it  a  tawny 
band  with  a  fine  black  line  running  round.  The  hind  wings  have 
their  hinder  margin  black,  and  garnished  with  a  little  white 
fringe.  The  two  tails  are  black  and  the  groove  of  the  inner 
margin  is  of  an  ashy  grey.  The  underneath  of  the  wings  is 


196 


THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 


ferruginous  with  spots  of   an  olive   brown   set  in  a  framework 
of  white  towards  the  base. 


Fig.  169. — Charaxes  jasius. 

The  caterpillar  is  green,  and  flat  like  a  slug,  with  four  yellow 
horns  bordered  with  red  (Fig.  170).    It  lives  on  the  arbutus,  a 


Fig.  170. — Larva  of  Charaxes  jasius 
about  to  change  to  a  pupa. 


Fig.  171. — Erebia  euryale. 


shrub  common  enough  on  the  hills  and  mountains  of  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean. 


Fig.  17-*.— Chionobas  aellu. 


To  the  family  of   the   Satyridce    belongs   the   Erebia   euryale 


LEPIDOPTERA.  197 

(Fig.  171),  which  is  found  in  the  month  of  July  is  sub- alpine 
regions ;  the  Chionobas  aello  (Fig.  172),  which  is  found  in  the 
Alps  of  Switzerland,  of  the  Tyrol,  and  of  Savoy,  and  which  is 
common  enough,  in  the  month  of  July,  on  the  summit  of  Montan- 
vers,  near  the  mer  de  glace ;  the  Satyrus  ''anira,  or  Meadow  brown 


Fig.  173. — Meadow  brown  (Satyrus  (Hipparchia)  janira). 

(Fig.  173),  which  is  very  common,  in  the  months  of  June  and 
July,  in  woods  and  fields. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  second  section  of  Lepidoptera. 

It  contains  those  whose  flight  in  the  majority  of  species  is  nocturnal 
or  by  twilight,  but  by  day  in  some  species.  The  antennae  are  more 
or  less  swollen  out  in  the  middle  or  before  their  extremities,  and, 
independently  of  that,  sometimes  prismatic,  sometimes  cylindrical, 
sometimes  pectinated  or  indented.  The  body, — which  was  small  in 
comparison  to  the  wings,  and  which  was  remarkably  thin  between 
tJie  thorax  and  the  abdomen  in  thejirst  section  of  Lepidoptera, — is 
in  this  section  very  much  larger  in  proportion  to  the  wings,  and  is 
not  drawn  tightly  in  between  the  thorax  and  the  abdomen.  The 
wings  are  horizontal  or  slightly  inclined  when  the  insect  is  at  rest ;  the 
upper  then  cover  the  lower,  which 
are  generally  comparatively  short 
and  kept  back  by  a  bridle  on  the 
jirst,  in  the  case  of  the  males  only. 

We  will  take  the  genus  Sesia 
as  the  representative  of  the 
Sesiidcs.  These  singular  insects 
have  membranous  wings,  and  re- 
semble various  species  of  Hyme- 

mi        ,  .  Fig.  174.— Sesia  apiformis. 

iioptera.     The  largest  species  is 

the  Sesia  apiformis  (Fig.   174),  that  is,  bee-like,  which  is  found 


198 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


in  this  country,  resting  on  the  trunks  of  willows  and  poplar- 
trees,  from  the  end  of  May  till  the  middle  of  July.  It  resem- 
bles a  hornet,  and  is  of  the  same  size  and  has  the  same  colours  ; 
only  they  are  not  quite  so  bright.  When  this  moth  is  just 
hatched,  its  wings  are  ferruginous ;  but  its  scales,  light  and 
caducous,  fall  as  soon  as  the  insect  begins  to  fly.  The  caterpillar, 
which  lives  in  the  trunks  or  roots  of  willows  and  poplar-trees,  is 
of  a  yellowish  colour.  The  pupa  is  long,  of  a  brownish  colour, 
enclosed  in  a  cocoon  composed  of  agglutinated  saw-dust,  the  pro- 
duct of  the  caterpillar's  erosions. 

In  the  middle  of  summer  the  meadows  are  frequented  by  moths, 
with  brilliant  black  and  velvety  wings,  marked  with  red,  which 
fly  heavily  and  only  for  a  short  time  together.  They  remain 
motionless  during  the  great  heat  of  the  day.  These  are  the 

y  or  Burnets,  of  the  family  of  the 
The  Earn  Sphinx  of  Geoffrey, 
or   the   Six- spot  Burnet-moth    (Zyg&na 
filipendulcB]  (Fig.  175).,  is  common  from 
the   end  .of  June   till  the   beginning  of 
August.     Its  legs,    antennge,   head,   and 
body  are  black  and  rather  hairy ;  its  upper 
wings  are  of  a  brilliant  bluish  green,  with 
six  spots  of  a  beautiful  red  on  each,  bordered  by  a  little  green. 
The   caterpillar  is   yellow  spotted  with  black;    its 
cocoon   is   boat- shaped,  with  longitudinal  furrows, 
and  is  straw  colour  (Fig.  176). 

Next  to  Zyg&na  comes  Procris,  a  species  which 
fly  during  the  day  in  fields.  We  will  mention  par- 
ticularly the  Procris  statices  (Fig.  177),  which  is 
plentiful  enough  where  it  occurs  between  the  middle 
of  June  and  the  middle  of  July,  on  the  sides  of 
hills.  Its  fore  wings,  antennae,  and  the  whole  of  its 
body,  are  of  a  blue  green  above.  The  same  wings 
are  of  the  same  colour  below,  and  the  surfaces  of 
the  lower  ones  are  of  an  ashy  brown. 

The  Sphinges,  that  is,  those  species  that  form  the 
Fig.  176  -cocoon  family  of  the  Spkinqidce,  have  received  this  general 

oftheZygama  •>  •  •       «  1-11-  -n 

name  from    the   attitude   which   their   caterpillars 


Fig.  175.— Six-spot  Burnet-moth 
(Zyqeena  /ilipendulee) 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  199 

• 

often  assume.  Raising  the  fore  part  of  the  body,  which 
attitude  resembles  the  Sphinx  of  mythology,  they  keep  for  a 
very  long  time  this  state  of  immobility.  They  fly  very  rapidly 


Fig.  177.— The  Forester  (Proem  (/no)  statices). 

and  briskly,  and  only  make  their  appearance  for  the  most 
part  after  sunset.  The  caterpillars,  which  in  this  group  are 
without  hair,  and  have  almost  always  a  horn  on  the  eleventh 
segment  of  the  body,  metamorphose  themselves  in  the  earth,  with- 
out forming  hard  cocoons.  The  chrysalides  are  sometimes 
enveloped  in  a  very  slight  shell  or  cocoon,  which  when  it  exists 
is  formed  of  particles  of  earth,  or  of  vegetable  debris  bound  together 
by  threads.  This  family  comprises  species  generally  remarkable 
for  their  size  and  beauty. 

The  genus  Macroglossa  contains  some  species  which  fly  rapidly 
and  for  a  long  time  together  during  the  day.  We  will  mention 
particularly  the  Humming-bird  Sphinx  (Macroglossa  stellatarum). 
This  moth  (Fig.  178)  has  attracted  the  attention  of  all  who  have 
ever  spent  much  time  in  a  flower  garden.  In  Burgundy  the 
children  call  it  bird-fly.  In  passing  from  one  flower  to  another 
it  has  brisk  and  rapid  movements  ;  but  it  remains  suspended  in 
the  air  before  each.  It  does  not  alight  upon  any ;  it  is  always 
flying,  thrusting  its  long  trunk  the  while  into  the  corollse  of 
flowers,  counterbalancing  the  action  of  its  weight  by  the  con- 
tinuous vibration  of  its  wings. 

We  will  describe  in  a  few  words  this  robust  inhabitant  of 
the  air,  this  charming  Urd-fly.  The  Macroglossa  stellatarum 
shows  itself  during  the  whole  of  the  fine  season,  and  till  the 
middle  of  autumn,  in  our  climate.  It  often  penetrates  in  the 
middle  of  the  day  into  our  houses,  and  knocking  itself  against 


200  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

the   window-panes,   falls  an  easy   prey  to    children.       Its  front 


Fig.  178.  —  Humming-bird  Hawk-moth  (Macroglossastellatarum*). 

wings    are   of  an  ashy   brown,    of   changing    hues   above,    with 

three  black,  transverse,  undulating  lines. 
The  lower,  shorter  than  the  others,  are 
of  a  rusty-yellow  colour.  All  the  wings 
are  yellowish  below  near  the  body,  ferru- 
ginous in  the  middle,  and  of  a  dark  brown 
at  their  extremities. 

The  body  is  long,  brown,  hairy,  and 
terminating  in  a  tuft  of  divergent  hairs, 


Fig.  179.—  Caterpillar  of   Humming- 


bird      Hawk-moth 


(Macrog.'ossa 


rpTT1  :«;!,•„  „. 
T  HQing 


P   KiTrP«  tnil          Tf    ie 
a  S  tail. 


this  reason  that  it  has  been  called  by  the 
French  sphinx  moineau,  or  sparrow  sphinx.  This  resemblance  is 
so  great  that  Mr.  Bates,  in  his  book  on  the  Amazons,  says  he  often 
shot  species  of  this  genus  in  mistake  for  humming-birds.  The  cater- 
pillar of  this  remarkable  Lepidopteron  (Fig.  179)  is  of  a  pale  green. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


201 


with  eight  transversal  rows  of  small  white  dots  and  four  longitudinal 
rows,  of  which  two  are  white  and  two  yellowish.  It  has  a  dark  blue 
horn,  with  an  orange  coloured  tip.  It  lives  on  different  species  of 


Fig.  180. — Pupa  of  Macroglossa  stellatariuu. 

bedstraw,  but  by  preference  on  the  Gallium  mullugo.  Before  its 
metamorphosis,  it  encloses  itself  in  a  shapeless  cocoon,  made  of  the 
debris  of  leaves  held  together  by  threads,  and  placed  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  The  pupa  (Fig.  180)  is  of  a  light  grey, 
sprinkled  over  with  brown  dots,  and  striped  with  black.  Its  skin 
is  so  thin  and  transparent  that  one  can  follow  it  through  all  the 
phases  of  transformation  to  the  imago. 

The  genus  Deilephila  is  composed  of  species  whose  flight  is 
rapid,  and  after  sunset.  Such  are  the  Deilephila  euphorbice,  the 
Oleander  Hawk-moth  (Deilephila  (Cheer  ocampa)  nerii),  and  the 
large  Elephant  Hawk-moth  (Deilephila  (Ch&rocampa)  elpenor). 

The  Deilephila  euphorbia  (Fig.  181)  has  the  upper  wings  of  a 
reddish  grey,  with  three 
spots  of  greenish  or  olive 
colour  along  the  costa,  or 
front  margin,  and  abroad, 
black,  oblique  band  along 
the  hind  margin.  The 
lower  wings  are  red  with 
the  base  black,  and  a 
transverse  black  band  to- 
wards the  ba,>o ;  they  have, 
moreover,  a  large  round 

White   spot  on  the  inside.  Fi^  ISl.-Beilephila  euphorbi*. 

Beneath  the  wings  are  red,  as  also  is  the  body,  which  is  covered 


202  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

above  with  greenish  hairs.  This  species  is  exceedingly  rare  here, 
but  is  plentiful  on  the  Continent  during  the  months  of  June  and 
September. 

The  larva  (Fig.  182)  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the 
genus  on  account  of  the  splendour  and  the  vividness  of  its  colours, 
and  appears  to  be  covered  with  varnish.  It  has  a  number  of  small 
yellow  dots  very  close  to  each  other  on  a  glossy  black  ground,  which 


Fig.  182. — Larva  of  Deilepliila  euphorbiee. 

are  ranged  in  circles.  On  each  side  of  the  body  are  two  longi- 
tudinal rows  of  spots  generally  of  the  same  colour  as  the  dots, 
and  a  narrow  band  of  carmine  runs  down  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  a  similar  band,  which  is  intersected  by  yellow,  is  to  be  seen 
above  the  legs.  This  caterpillar  is  almost  always  found  on  the 
Cyprus-leafed  spurge.  It  is  found  first  at  the  end  of  June. 
Generally  the  chrysalis  passes  through  the  winter,  and  the  moth 
emerges  in  the  following  year. 

The  Deilephila  (Chcerocampa)  nerii  (Fig.  183),  or  Oleander 
Hawk-moth,  is  a  charming  species  almost  peculiar  to  hot  countries, 
where  the  shrub  from  which  it  derives  its  name  grows  spontaneously, 
that  is  to  say,  in  Africa,  in  the  southern  parts  of  Asia,  in  Greece, 
in  Spain,  &c.  Carried  forward  by  its  rapid  flight,  and  assisted 
by  atmospheric  currents,  these  beautiful  insects  sometimes  come 
accidentally  into  the  countries  of  central  Europe.  They  have 
been  met  with  many  times  in  Paris,  in  the  garden  of  the 
Luxembourg,  where  the  Oleander  is  cultivated  under  glass.  But 
those  which  are  hatched  in  the  environs  of  Paris  never  reproduce 
their  species,  on  account  of  the  coldness  of  the  climate.  Both 
larva  and  imago,  the  former  on  Periwinkle,  have  occurred  here. 
It  abounds  in  the  south  of  France. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


203 


The  caterpillar  of  this  species  (Fig.  184)  is  one  of  those  called 
by  the  French  Cochonnes,  because  their  two  first  rings,  which  are 


Fig.  183.— Deilephila  (Chaerocampa)  nerii. 

retractile  and  drawn  back  under  the  third  when  the  insect  is  at 


Fig.  184.— Larva  of  Deilephila  (Chaerocampa)  nerii. 

rest,  taper  in  such  a  way  as  to  resemble  the  snout  of  a  pig,  hence 


204 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


the  English  name  "Elephant/'  when  they  change  their  place  or 
are  engaged  in  eating.  It  is  of  a  beautiful  green,  with  white 
stripes  and  dots  on  the  sides,  and  marked  on  the  third  segment 
with  two  large  spots  like  eyes,  of  an  azure  blue,  encircled  with 
black,  and  haying  white  pupils.  A  short  orange-coloured  horn 
rises  at  the  extremity  of  the  body.  A  few  days  before  its  trans- 
formation, this  caterpillar  entirely  loses  its  rich  livery,  it  becomes 
brown  on  the  back,  and  of  a  dirty  yellow  on  the  rest  of  its  body, 
and  constructs  for  itself  a  cocoon  at  the  foot  of  the  shrub  on  which 
it  lived,  with  debris  of  leaves  fastened  together  with  threads. 


Tig.  185. — Pupa  oi'  Deilephila  (Chseroeampa)  nerii. 


The  cocoon  contains  a  chrysalis  (Fig.  185)  of  a  hazel  brown 
delicately  streaked  with  a  darker  brown,  and  with  a  very  con- 
spicuous black  spot  on  each  of  its  stigmata. 


Fig.  186.— Deilephila  (Cluerocampa)  elpenor. 


The  Elephant  Hawk-moth   (Deilephila  (Ckcerocampa)  elpenor) 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


205 


(Fig.  186)  is  not  rare  during  the  month  of  June.  Its  fore  wings 
are  purple  red,  glossy  above,  with  three  bands,  of  a  light 
olive  green ;  having  at  the  base  a  small  black  spot.  The  inner 
margin  is  garnished  with  white  hairs.  The  hind  wings  are  of 
a  dark  rose  colour  above,  with  the  base  black,  and  the  hind 
margin  bordered  with  white.  The  four  wings  are  rose  coloured 
below,  with  the  costa  and  the  middle  of  an  olive  green  ;  the  upper 
ones  have  their  interior  border  tinged  with  a  blackish  colour.  The 
body  is  rose  colour,  with  two  longitudinal  bands  of  an  olive  green 


Fig.  187. — Lujrva  of  Deilephila  (Chaerocaiupa)  elpenor. 

over  the  abdomen,  and  five  diverging  lines  of  this  colour  on  the 
thorax.  The  sides  of  the  abdomen  have  along  them  a  double 
series  of  yellowish  points. 

The  caterpillar  of  this  sphinx  (Fig.  187)  is  of  a  dark  brown, 
delicately  striped  with  black.  Two  grey  lines  run  down  each  side 
of  its  body,  and  on  the  fourth  and  fifth  segments  are  two  black  eyes 
bordered  by  light  violet.  This  caterpillar  is  found  most  often  on 
certain  kinds  of  Epilobium,  but  will  also  eat  the  vine,  fuschia,  and 


Fig.  183.— Pupa  of  Deilephila  (Chserocampa)  elpenor. 

bedstraw.  One  must  look  for  it  in  damp  places,  by  streams  and  ponds, 
from  the  end  of  July  till  September.  It  constructs  on  the  surface 
of  the  soil  a  shapeless  cocoon  with  moss  and  dry  leaves,  which  it 


206  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

fastens  together  with  some  silky  threads.  Its  pupa  (Fig.  188),  of 
a  yellowish  brown,  has  short  bristles  on  the  rings  of  the  abdomen. 
The  caterpillar  possesses  in  the  highest  degree  the  retractile  power 
which  has  gained  for  certain  species  of  this  genus  their  popular 
names.  The  Privet  Sphinx  (Sphinx  ligustri,  Fig.  189)  has  its 


Fig.  189.— Privet  Hawk- Moth  (Spidnx  tiyustri). 

upper  wings  rather  narrow,  about  two  inches  long,  of  a  reddish 
grey,  and  veined  with  black  above,  with  the  middle  of  a  dark 
brown,  the  inner  margin  with  rose-coloured  .hairs,  and  the  hind 
margin  having  two  whitish  flexuous  lines  running  along  it.  The 
hind  wings  are  of  a  rose  tint,  with  three  black  bands.  The  wings 
are  of  a  reddish  grey  below  with  a  common  black  band.  The 
abdomen  has  black  and  rose-coloured  rings  above,  and  in  the 
middle  a  brownish  band  wholly  divided  by  a  black  line. 

This  species  is  very  common  in  all  parts  of  Europe.  One  finds 
it  in  gardens  from  June  to  September.  Of  all  the  caterpillars 
of  the  genus  Sphinx,  this  is  the  one  which,  by  its  attitude  when 
in  a  state  of  repose,  most  resembles  the  sphinx  of  fable,  from 
•which  the  genus  has  derived  its  name.  It  is  of  fine  apple 
green,  with  seven  oblique  stripes,  half  violet  and  half  white, 
placed  011  each  side  of  its  body,  and  three  or  four  small  white 


LEPIDOPTERA.  207 

spots  prolong  these  stripes.     The  stigmata  are  orange,  the  head 


Fivr.  190.— Larva  of  the  Privet  Hawk-Moth  (fy/iitix  ligustri). 

is  green  bordered  with  black.     The  extremity  of  the  body  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  smooth  horn,  black  above,  yellow  below  (Fig.  190). 


Fig.  191.— Pupa  of  Sphinx  ligustri. 

This  beautiful  caterpillar  is  not  rare.  It  lives  on  a  great  number 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  but  it  is  principally  on  the  privet,  the  lilac, 
and  the  ash  tree,  that  it  must  be  looked  for.  Three  or  four 
days  before  it  buries  itself  in  the  earth  to  change  itself  into  a 
chrysalis,  its  beautiful  colours  grow  dim.  During  the  months  of 
June  and  September  is  found  the  Convolvulus  Sphinx  (Sphinx 
convokuli,  Fig.  192),  with  brown  wings,  and  with  the  abdomen 
striped  with  transverse  bands  alternately  black  and  red.  The  cater- 
pillar of  this  species,  which  presents  a  great  number  of  varieties, 
lives  on  many  kinds  of  Convolvuli,  but  particularly  on  the  field 
species.  It  is  generally  rare  here,  but  occasionally  abundant. 
It  is  in  the  genus  Acherontia  that  the  moth  most  known  is 


208 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


classed.  We  refer  to  the  Death's-head  Moth  (Ac/ierontia  atropos). 
It  is  the  largest  species  of  Hawk-moth.  This  insect  presents, 
roughly  marked  out  in  light  yellow,  on  the  black  ground  of  its 
thorax,  a  human  skull.  This  funereal  symbol,  joined  to  the  plain- 
tive cry  which  this  moth  emits  when  frightened,  has  sometimes 


Fig.  192. — The  Convolvulus  Sphinx  (Sphinx  convolvuli). 

inspired  terror  into  the  whole  population  of  a  country.  The  appear- 
ance of  this  moth  in  certain  countries  having  coincided  with 
the  invasion  of  an  epidemic  disease,  some  thought  they  saw  in 
this  doleful  sylph  of  the  night  the  messenger  of  death.  The 
Acherontia  atropos  plays  a  great  part  in  the  superstitions  which 
are  believed  in  by  the  country  folks  in  England.  One  hears 
it  said  in  country  places  that  this  ominous  inhabitant  of  the 
air  is  in  league  with  the  witches,  and  that  it  goes  and  murmurs 
into  their  ears  with  its  sad  and  plaintive  voice  the  name  of 
the  person  whom  death  is  soon  to  carry  off.  In  spite  of 
its  ominous  livery,  the  Atropos  does  not  come  from  Hades; 
it  is  no  envoy  of  death,  bringing  sadness  and  mourning. 
It  does  not  bring  us  news  of  another  world ;  it  tells  us,  011 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  209 

the  contrary,  that  nature  can    people    every  hour;  that  it   was 
her  will  to  console  them  for  their  sadness,  to  grant  to  the  twilight 
and  to  the  night  the  same  winged  wanderers  which  are  at  once 
the  delight  and  the  ornament  of  the  hours  of  light  and  of  day. 
This  is  the  mission  of  science,   to  dissipate  the  thousands  of 


Fig.  193.— Death's-head  Hawk-moth  (Acherontia  atropos). 

prejudices  and  dangerous  superstitions  which  mislead  ignorant 
people. 

This  moth  has  the  front  wings  of  a  blackish  brown  colour,  having 
lighter  irregular  bands  varied  with  brown  and  grey,  above  and 
below.  On  the  middle  of  the  front  wing  there  is  a  well-defined 
white  dot.  The  hind  wings  have  two  black  bands,  the  upper 
narrower  than  the  lower  one ;  the  rest  of  the  wing  is  a  fine  yellow. 
The  abdomen  has  likewise  from  five  to  six  yellow  and  as  many 
black  bands  ;  in  the  middle  is  a  long  blackish  longitudinal  band. 
This  moth  is  not  very  rare,  and  may  be  found  in  autumn.  Its 
flight  is  heavy,  and  as  we  have  said,  the  insect  never  flies  till 

p 


210 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


after  sunset.  If  caught,  or  when  teased,  it  utters  a  cry  which  is 
very  audible. 

The  Death's-head  Hawk-moth  would  be  a  very  inoffensive 
being  if  it  did  not  make  its  way  into  beehives,  in  order  to  steal 
the  honey,  of  which  it  is  excessively  fond.  It  is  to  no  purpose  that 
the  bees  dart  their  stings  at  the  intruder,  they  only  blunt  them 
against  its  thick  skin,  and  soon  terrified  at  its  presence,  disperse  on 
all  sides. 

The  caterpillar  of  the  Ach&rontia  atropos  (Fig.  194)  is  the 
largest  of  all  European  caterpillars.  It  attains  to  as  much  as  four 


Fig.  194  .—Larva  of  the  Death's-head  Hawk-moth  (Acherontia  atropos). 

and  a  half  inches  in  length  by  eight  lines  in  diameter.  Its  colour 
is  lemon  yellow,  which  changes  into  green  on  the  sides  and  belly. 
From  the  fourth  to  the  tenth  ring  inclusively,  it  is  ornamented 
laterally  with  seven  oblique  bands  of  an  azure  blue,  which  are 
tinted  with  violet,  and  bordered  with  whits  on  the  side.  These 
bands  joining  together  over  the  back  of  each  segment  resemble  so 
many  chevrons  placed  parallel  to  each  other.  The  body  is,  moreover, 


LEPIDOPTEBA. 


211 


dotted  with  black.  At  its  extremity  is  a  yellow  horn,  curved 
back  like  a  hook,  and  covered  with  tubercles.  The  head  is  green 
and  marked  laterally  with  a  black  stripe.  It  lives  chiefly  on  the 
potato,  and  the  Lycium  barbarum,  sometimes  called  the  tea- tree, 


Fig.  195.— Chrysalis  of  the  Death's-head  Hawk-moth. 

a  shrub  belonging  to  the  Solanacece.  It  buries  itself  in  the  earth 
to  change  into  a  chrysalis  (Fig.  195)  of  a  bright  chestnut  brown. 

We  will  mention  still  further,  in  the  family  of  the  SphingidtB, 
three  species  of  the  genus  Smerinthus,  which  fly  heavily  and  by 
twilight. 

The  Lime-tree  Hawk-moth  (Smerinthus  tilice,  Fig.  196)  has  its 
upper  wings  grey  with  some  shades  of  green,  and  moreover,  in  the 


w 


Fig.  196. — Lime  Hawk-moth  (Smerinthus  tilice). 

middle  of  the  wing,  an  irregular  band  of  a  brownish  green  colour. 
The  thorax  covered  with  hairs  is  grey,  with  three  green  longitu- 

p  2 


212 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


dinal  bands.     The  abdomen  is  also  grey.     The  moth  flies  heavily 
after  sunset,  and  is  found  on  the  trunks  of  trees  during  the  months 


Fig.  197. — Larva  of  the  Lime  Hawk-Moth  (Smerintkus  tilia). 

of  May  and  June.     The  larva  (Fig.  197)  is  glaucous  green  dotted 
with    yellow,    and    marked   on   each    side    with    seven   oblique 


Fig.  198.— Eyed  Hawk-Moth  (Smerintlms  ocdlatus). 

lines  of  the  same  colours.     Its  wrinkly  horn  is  blue  above  and 
yellow  below.    It  is  found  on  the  lime  and  the  elm.    It  buries  itself 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


213 


at  the  foot  of  the  tree  on   which   it  has  fed  to  change  into  a 
chrysalis  without  making  a  cocoon. 


Fig.  199.— Poplar  Hawk-Moth  (Smerintkuspopuli). 

We  will  content  ourselves  by  here  giving  drawings  of  two  other 


Fig.  200.— Larva  of  the  Poplar  Hawk-Moth  (Smerinthus  populi). 

species  of   the  same  genus  :     the  Eyed  Hawk-moth   (Smerinthus 
ocellatus,  Fig.  198),  which  is  not  rare  during  the  months  of  May 


214  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

and  sometimes  August,  the  caterpillar  of  which  lives  on  the  leaves 
of  willows,  poplars,  and  fruit-trees ;  and  the  Poplar  Hawk-moth 
(Smerinthus  populi,  Fig.  199),  whose  caterpillar  (Fig.  200)  lives 
on  the  poplar,  the  aspen,  and  sometimes  on  the  willow  and  birch. 

The  division  of  Bombydna  contains  the  largest  of  moths  ;  and  at 
the  same  time  species  of  a  middle  and  small  size.  These  moths 
take  no  nourishment,  and  live  only  for  a  short  time,  long  enough 
to  propagate  their  species.  They  rarely  fly  during  the  day, 
only  showing  themselves  in  the  evening.  The  group  is  dispersed 
over  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  may  be  recognised  by 
the  antennaB  generally  being  cut  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb  in  the 
males,  by  their  thick,  strong  bodies,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
by  their  large  head,  by  their  wings  more  or  less  large,  and  by 
their  heavy  flight. 

In  the  Bombycina  are  found  the  genera  Sericaria,  Attacus, 
Bombyx,  Orgyia,  Liparis,  &c. 

It  is  to  the  genus  Bombyx  that  the  silkworm  belongs,  that 
celebrated  insect  called  by  Linnaeus  Bombyx  mori,  a  name  which 
reminds  us  at  the  same  time  of  its  most  ancient  denomination,  and 
of  the  mulberry  tree,  on  which  these  caterpillars  feed. 

M.  Gruerin-Meneville  has  called  the  silkworm  "the  dog  of 
insects/1  for  it  has  been  domesticated  from  the  most  ancient  times, 
and  has  become  deprived  of  great  part  of  its  strength  in  the 
process.  The  moth  of  the  silkworm  can  no  longer  keep  its 
position  in  the  air,  or  on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry  when 
they  are  agitated  by  the  wind.  It  can  no  longer  protect  itself, 
under  the  leaves,  from  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun  and  from 
its  enemies.  The  female,  always  motionless,  seems  to  be  ignorant 
of  the  fact  that  she  has  wings.  The  male  no  longer  flies ;  he  flutters 
round  his  companion,  without  quitting  the  ground.  It  ought,  how- 
ever, to  be  possessed  in  the  wild  state  of  a  sufliciently  powerful 
flight.  M.  Ch.  Martins  found  that  after  three  generations  reared  in 
the  open  air,  the  males  recovered  their  lost  power. 

Before  speaking  of  the  different  phases  of  the  life  of  the  silk- 
worm and  the  rearing  of  this  precious  insect,  we  will  say  some- 
thing about  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  silk  trade,  one  of  the 
most  important  branches  of  commerce  in  the  South  of  Europe  and 
in  the  East. 


PLATE  V. 


The  Empress  Si-ling-chi  gathering  Mulberry  Leaves. 


Page  215. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  215 

The  native  country  of  the  silkworm  is  not  better  known  than  that 
of  the  greater  number  of  plants  and  animals  which  form  the  staple 
of  agricultural  industry.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  its  native 
country  was  China.  It  was  certainly  in  this  vast  empire  that  long 
since  the  business  of  fabricating  silk  began.  One  reads  the 
following  in  "  1'Histoire  generale  de  la  Chine,"  by  le  P.  Mailla : — 

"  The  Emperor  Hoang-ti,  who  lived  2,600  years  before  our  era, 
wished  that  Si-ling-chi,  his  wife,  should  contribute  to  the  happi- 
ness of  his  people ;  he  charged  her  to  study  the  silkworm,  and  to 
try  to  utilise  its  threads.  Si-ling-chi  caused  a  great  quantity  of 
these  insects  to  be  collected,  which  she  fed  herself  in  a  place 
destined  exclusively  for  the  purpose  ;  she  not  only  discovered  the 
means  of  rearing  them,  but  still  further  the  manner  of  winding  off 
their  silk  and  of  employing  it  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics." 

It  may  be  asked,  however,  if  the  learned  men  who  composed  this 
recital  did  not  collect  under  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Hoang-ti 
all  the  events  and  all  the  discoveries  whose  dates  were  lost  in  the 
obscurity  of  the  most  remote  periods  of  history.  Is  not  the 
Empress  Si-ling-chi  a  mythical  person  ?  a  sort  of  Chinese  Ceres, 
to  whom,  under  the  title  of  goddess  of  the  silkworm,  they  then 
raised  altars  ? 

Here,  at  any  rate,  is  how  Duhalde*  analyses  the  recital  of  the 
Chinese  annalists  on  the  remarkable  fact  of  the  introduction  of  the 
silkworm,  and  its  rich  products,  into  the  Chinese  empire : — 

"  Up  to  the  time  of  this  queen  (Si-ling-chi)/'  says  he,  "  when 
the  country  was  only  lately  cleared  and  brought  into  cultivation, 
the  people  employed  the  skins  of  animals  as  clothes.  But  these 
skins  were  no  longer  sufficient  for  the  multitude  of  the  inhabi- 
tants ;  necessity  made  them  industrious ;  they  applied  themselves 
to  the  manufacture  of  cloth  wherewith  to  cover  themselves.  But  it 
was  to  this  princess  that  they  owed  the  useful  invention  of  silk 
stuffs.  Afterwards,  the  empresses,  named  by  Chinese  authors  ac- 
cording to  the  order  of  their  dynasties,  found  an  agreeable  occupa- 
tion in  superintending  the  hatching,  rearing,  and  feeding  of  silk- 
worms, in  making  silk,  and  working  it  up  when  made.  There 
was  an  enclosure  attached  to  the  palace  for  the  cultivation  of 
mulberry  trees. 

*  "Description  de  la  Chine,"  torn,  ii.,  p.  205. 


216  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

"  The  empress,  accompanied  by  queens  and  the  greatest  ladies 
of  the  court,  went  in  state  into  this  enclosure,  and  gathered  with 
her  own  hand  the  leaves  of  three  branches  which  her  ladies  in 
waiting  had  lowered  till  they  were  within  her  reach  ;  the  finest 
pieces  of  silk  which  she  made  herself,  or  which  were  made  by  her 
orders  and  under  her  own  eye,  were  destined  for  the  ceremony  of 
the  grand  sacrifice  offered  to  Chang-si, 

"It  is  probable,"  adds  Duhalde,  " that  policy  had  more  to  do 
than  anything  else  with  all  this  trouble  taken  by  the  empresses. 
Their  intention  was  to  induce,  by  their  example,  the  princesses 
and  ladies  of  quality,  and  the  whole  people,  to  rear  silkworms : 
in  the  same  way  as  the  emperors,  to  ennoble  in  some  sort  agri- 
culture and  to  encourage  the  people  to  undertake  laborious  works, 
never  failed,  at  the  beginning  of  each  spring,  to  guide  the  plough 
in  person,  and  with  great  state  to  plough  up  a  few  furrows,  and 
in  these  sow  some  seed. 

"As  far  as  concerns  the  empresses,  it  is  a  long  time  since  they 
have  ceased  to  apply  themselves  to  the  manufacture  of  silk ;  one 
sees,  nevertheless,  in  the  precincts  of  the  imperial  palace,  a  large 
space  covered  with  houses,  the  road  leading  to  which  is  still  called 
the  road  which  leads  to  the  place  destined  for  the  rearing  of  silk- 
worms, Tor  the  amusement  of  the  empresses  and  queens.  In  the 
books  of  the  philosopher  Mencius,  is  a  wise  police  rule,  made  under 
the  first  reigns,  which  determines  the  space  destined  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  mulberry  trees,  according  to  the  extent  of  the  land 
possessed  by  each  private  individual." 

M.  Stanislas  Julien  *  tells  us  of  many  regulations  made  by  the 
Emperor  of  China,  to  render  obligatory  the  care  and  attention 
requisite  to  rearing  silk. 

Tchin-iu,  being  governor  of  the  district  of  Kien-Si,  ordered  that 
every  man  should  plant  fifty  feet  of  land  with  mulberry  trees. f 
The  Emperor  (under  the  dynasty  of  Witei)  gave  to  each  man 
twenty  acres  of  land  on  condition  that  he  planted  fifty  feet  with 
mulberry  trees. £  Hien-tsang  (who  ascended  the  throne  in  806) 

*  "  Resum6  des  principaux  traites  Chinois  sur  la  culture  des  muriers  et  1' education 
des  vers  a  sole,  traduit  par  Stanislas  Julien."    Paris,  imprimerie  royale,  1837. 
f  "  Annales  de  la  dynastie  des  Liang." 


LEPIDOPTEKA.  217 

ordered  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  should  plant  two  feet 
in  every  acre  with  mulberry  trees.*  The  first  Emperor  of  the 
dynasty  of  Song  (who  began  to  reign  about  the  year  960)  pub- 
lished a  decree  forbidding  his  subjects  to  cut  down  the  mulberry 
trees. f 

By  all  these  means,  according  to  the  testimony  of  M.  Stanislas 
Julien,  the  business  of  the  fabrication  of  silk  became  general  in 
China.  This  great  empire  could  soon  furnish  to  its  neighbours 
this  precious  textile  material,  and  create  for  its  own  profit  a  very 
important  branch  of  commerce. 

It  was  forbidden,  under  pain  of  death,  to  export  from  China  the 
silkworm's  eggs,  or  to  furnish  the  necessary  information  in  the 
art  of  obtaining  the  textile  material.  The  manufactured  article 
only  could  be  sold  out  of  the  empire.  It  was  thus  that  the  Asiatic 
nations  very  soon  understood  silk ;  and  that  in  many  of  their  cities 
they  applied  themselves  to  weaving  stuffs  of  this  precious  substance. 
The  carpets  and  dyed  stuffs  of  Babylon,  mixed  with  gold  and 
silk,  enjoyed  in  ancient  times  an  unparalleled  renown.  China 
was  not,  however,  the  only  country  that  then  furnished  silk 
to  the  towns  of  Asia  Minor.  At  a  very  distant  period,  India 
sent  by  her  caravans  very  considerable  quantities  of  it.  M.  Emile 
Blanchard  (of  the  Institute)  remarks,  however,  that  the  tissues 
of  India  must  be  made  of  a  different  silk  from  that  of  China, 
that  is  to  say,  of  a  silk  of  some  of  those  Bomhyces  of  which 
the  public  has  been  told  so  much  of  late  years,  and  of  which  we 
shall  have  soon  to  speak. 

Silk  commanded  for  centuries  a  prodigiously  high  price.  In 
the  time  of  Alexander  its  value  in  Greece  was  exactly  its  own 
weight  in  gold,  and  so  it  was  very  parsimoniously  employed  in 
silk  tissues.  These  were  so  transparent  that  women  who  wore 
them  were  scarcely  covered. 

Silk  was  unknown  to  the  Romans  before  Julius  Caesar.  It  was 
to  him  that  Rome  owed  its  acquaintance  with  this  new  material. 
He  introduced  it,  moreover,  in  a  singularly  magnificent  manner. 
One  day,  at  afete  given  in  the  Colosseum — a  combat  of  animals 
and  gladiators — the  people  saw  the  coarse  tent  of  cloth,  intended 
to  keep  off  the  rays  of  the  sun,  replaced  by  a  magnificent  covering 
*  "  Annales  de  la  dynastie  des  Thang."  f  "  Histoire  de  la  dynastie  des  Song." 


218  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

of  Oriental  silk.  They  murmured  at  this  gorgeous  prodigality 
but  declared  Caesar  a  great  man.  The  introduction  of  silk 
among  the  Romans  was  the  signal  for  luxurious  expenditure. 
The  patricians  made  a  great  display  with  their  silk  cloaks  of 
incalculable  value ;  so  that,  from  the  time  of  Tiberius,  the  Senate 
felt  itself  called  upon  to  forbid  the  use  of  silk  garments  to  men. 
Examples  of  simplicity  are  sometimes  set  in  high  places ;  thus  the 
Emperor  Aurelian  refused  to  the  Empress  Severina  a  dress  so 
costly. 

The  commerce  in  silk  bore  doubly  hard  upon  Europe,  both 
on  account  of  the  value  of  the  material  and  of  the  great  use  which 
was  made  of  it.  Persia  was  the  emporium  and  had  the  monopoly 
of  this  merchandise.  The  Emperor  Justinian  I.,  who  reigned 
at  Constantinople  from  A.D.  527  to  565,  tried  all  the  means  within 
his  power  of  freeing  his  States  from  this  ruinous  tyranny,  when 
a  circumstance  occurred,  very  fortunately  for  the  national  com- 
merce, which  brought  about  the  introduction  into  Europe  of 
sericiculture,  or  the  cultivation  of  silk. 

Two  monks  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil,  in  their  ardour  for  the 
propagation  of  the  faith,  had  pushed  forwards  into  China.  There 
they  had  been  initiated  into  the  operations  which  furnished  the 
fabric  so  highly  prized.  On  their  return  to  Constantinople,  and 
hearing  of  the  project  that  Justinian  entertained  of  depriving  the 
Persians  of  the  monopoly  in  silk,  the  two  monks  proposed  to 
the  Emperor  to  enrich  his  state  by  introducing  the  art  of  fabri- 
cating this  material.  The  proposition  was  rapturously  accepted, 
and  the  two  monks  returned  again  to  China,  with  the  object 
of  procuring  the  eggs  of  the  insect.  Having  arrived  at  the 
end  of  their  journey,  they  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  a 
quantity  of  silkworms'  eggs.  They  hid  them  between  the  knots 
of  their  sticks,  and  started  back  to  their  native  country,  with- 
out being  once  interfered  with.  Two  years  afterwards  they 
re-entered  Constantinople  with  their  precious  booty.*  The  larvae 
were  fed  on  mulberry  leaves.  Immediately  afterwards  began  the 

*  According  to  M.  de  Gasparin,  author  of  an  excellent  "  Essai  sur  1'Histoire  de 
1'introduction  des  vers  a  sole  en  Europe  "  (Paris,  in  8vo,  1841),  it  was  not  into  China, 
but  only  into  Tartary,  to  Serinda,  that  the  two  monks  went  in  search  of  the  silk- 
worms' eggs  (pp.  37—39). 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  219 

rearing  of  the  worms  and  the  preparation  for  the  silk,  according 
to  the  instructions  given  by  these  courageous  travellers.  The 
first  rearings  succeeded  perfectly,  and  so  plantations  of  mulberry 
trees  were  seen  to  multiply  and  spread  through  the  whole  extent 
of  the  Eastern  empire.  It  was,  above  all,  in  Southern  Greece 
that  this  branch  of  industry  assumed  an  immense  importance.  It 
was  then  the  Peloponnesus  lost  its  old  name,  and  was  called  the 
Morea,  from  the  Latin  name  for  "  mulberry,"  morus* 

Constantinople  and  Greece  were  the  countries  which,  during 
centuries,  furnished  the  whole  of  Europe  with  silkworms.  This 
diffusion,  however,  was  effected  very  slowly.  The  Greeks  attached 
great  importance  to  retaining  the  monopoly,  and  the  Emperor 
Justinian  had  caused  to  be  established  at  Constantinople  itself  silk 
manufactories,  where  the  most  skilful  artificers  of  Asia,  forbidden 
to  reveal  the  various  processes  to  strangers,  worked. 

Towards  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  the  Arabs  intro- 
duced the  silkworm  into  Spain.  But  this  industry  remained  con- 
fined within  narrow  limits.  It  was,  in  fact,  not  till  after  the 
twelfth  century  that  sericiculture  began  to  spread  throughout 
Europe.  Roger,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  possessing  a  navy  that 
commanded  the  Mediterranean,  employed  it  chiefly  in  making  ex- 
cursions and  conquests.  He  ravaged  Greece,  and  not  satisfied 
with  the  booty  he  carried  away  from  that  unfortunate  country, 
wished  still  further  to  deprive  them,  for  the  good  of  his  own 
kingdom,  of  the  silk  monopoly,  the  source  of  their  riches.  Roger 
carried  away  into  Sicily  and  Naples  a  great  number  of  prisoners, 
amongst  whom  were  some  weavers  and  men  who  had  devoted 
themselves  to  the  rearing  of  silk.  In  1169  he  established  these 
workmen  in  houses  adjoining  his  own  palace  at  Palermo.  There 
they  dyed  the  silk  of  different  colours,  and  mixed  it  with  gold, 
pearls,  and  precious  stones. 

From  Sicily  the  art  of  preparing  silk  spread  over  the  rest  of 
Italy.  In  1204,  the  workers  in  silk  constituted  themselves  into 
a  syndicate  at  Florence.  It  is  not,  however,  till  1423,  more  than 
two  hundred  years  after  the  introduction  of  this  branch  of  industry 
into  Italy,  that  we  find  the  first  mention  of  the  cultivation  of  the 

*  Others  derive  the  name  from  more,  the  Slavonic  word  for  the  sea.  See  "  On 
the  Study  of  Words."  By  Dean  Trench. — Er>, 


220  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

mulberry  tree  in  Tuscany.  In  1440,  each  Tuscan  peasant  was 
forced  to  plant  at  least  five  mulberry  trees  on  the  land  he  cul- 
tivated. In  1474,  the  commerce  in  silk  fabrics  with  all  parts  of 
the  world  had  become  extremely  prosperous  at  Florence.  In  1314, 
the  Venetian  manufactures  began  to  assume  much  importance. 
Three  thousand  workers  in  silk  were  then  established  in  Venice. 

Without  dwelling  longer  on  the  propagation  of  the  silk 
trade  in  Italy,  let  us  pass  on  to  its  establishment  in  France. 
It  was  in  1340  that  some  French  gentlemen,  who  had  stayed  some 
time  in  Naples,  planted  in  Avignon  the  first  mulberry  trees.* 
According  to  Olivier  de  Serres,  it  was  not  introduced  till  much 
later  into  Dauphine.  It  was  not  introduced  into  Alan,  near  Monte- 
limart,  till  1495,  by  the  Seigneur  Gruyape  de  Saint- Aubain.f 
Louis  XI.  made  great  efforts  to  develop  the  silk  trade  in  France 
by  inviting  over  Italian  workmen,  and  they  began  under  his 
reign  to  fabricate  silks  in  Touraine  and  Lyons.  Francis  I.  greatly 
developed  the  trade  of  Lyons.  In  1554,  under  Henry  II.,  the 
masters  and  men  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  gold,  silver,  and 
silk  in  Lyons  were  twelve  thousand  in  number.  Under  Henry  II. 
were  planted  the  mulberry  trees  of  Bourdeziere,  Tours,  Chenon- 
ceaux,  Toulouse,  and  Moulins.  These  plantations,  however,  were 
of  very  small  extent.  They  were  not  the  result  of  a  general  and 
truly  popular  effort ;  moreover,  civil  war  came  very  soon,  and 
turned  men's  minds  away  from  the  isolated  attempts  of  some  few 
private  individuals.  Sericiculture,  in  fact,  did  not  assume  any  great 
importance  in  France  till  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 

This  king  saw  with  grief  considerable  sums  of  money  leaving 
France  each  year  for  the  purchase  of  raw  silk  or  of  silk  stuffs. 
Two  men  marvellously  furthered  his  project  of  encouraging  the 
silk  trade.  One  of  these  men  was  Barth&Lemy  Laffemas,  called 
BeausemUant.  For  a  long  time,  he  had  been  writing  memoir 
upon  memoir,  to  demonstrate  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
the  plantation  of  the  mulberry  tree  in  France ;  and  he  tells  us 
that  silkworms  were  then  raised  with  success  at  Nantes,  at 
Poissy,  and  even  at  Paris.  The  second  supporter  whom 
Henry  IV.  found  in  the  propagation  of  sericiculture  was  a 

*  De  Gasparin,  "  Essai  sur  1' introduction  des  vers  a  soie  en  Europe,"  p.  70. 
f  "  Theatre  d'agriculture  d'Olivier  de  Serres,"  torn.  ii.  p.  158.     In  8vo. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  221 

man  distinguished  in  a  very  different  way  from  that  of  M.  Laffe- 
mas.  This  was  Olivier  de  Serres,  the  author  of  the  "  Theatre 
de  Tagriculture ; "  he  whom  Henry  IY.  called  his  lord  and 
master  in  -agriculture.  Olivier  de  Serres  was  the  first  among 
his  countrymen  who  had  published  instructions  regarding  the 
cultivation  of  mulberry  trees  and  the  rearing  of  silkworms. 
Henry  IY.,  who  had  noticed  his  writings,  called  him  to  Paris ; 
and,  on  his  solicitation,  caused  twenty  thousand,  mulberry  trees 
and  a  great  quantity  of  silkworms'  eggs,  of  which  a  distri- 
bution was  made  over  the  whole  of  France,  to  be  imported 
from  Italy.  From  that  moment,  sericiculture  was  propagated 
rapidly  in  the  Cevennes,  in  Provence,  in  Languedoc,  in  Touraine, 
and  many  other  provinces.  Mulberry  trees  were  planted  at 
Fontainebleau,  in  the  royal  park  of  Tournelles,  and  even  in  the 
garden  of  the  Tuileries,  where  an  Italian  lady,  named  Julie, 
reared  silkworms  for  Henry  IY. 

Notwithstanding  this  great  impulse,  sericiculture  dwindled 
away  on  the  death  of  that  king.  Ifc  received  a  fresh  impulse 
under  Colbert,  the  great  minister,  who  succeeded  in  creating 
the  spirit  of  commerce  and  trade  in  France.  New  manufac- 
tories were  established,  and  plantations  of  mulberry  trees  formed 
in  many  of  the  provinces.  All  this  progress  was  suddenly 
brought  to  a  standstill  by  the  iniquitous  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  which  deprived  France  of  her  leading  commercial  men. 
Driven  from  their  own  country,  the  Protestant  families  of  Ce- 
vennes established  abroad  silk  manufactories,  of  which  the  fabrics 
rivalled  those  of  French  production. 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  intendants  of  the  provinces  tried, 
but  with  very  slight  success,  to  give  a  fresh  impetus  to  sericiculture 
in  France.  The  Abb6  Boissier  de  Sauvages  published,  about 
1760,  some  works,  which  prove  him  to  have  been  a  patient 
observer,  an  accurate  reasoner,  and  a  clever  rearer  of  silkworms. 
Boissier  de  Sauvages  is  the  father  of  modern  silk-culture.  During 
the  first  Revolution,  men's  minds  were  occupied  with  graver 
subjects  than  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree.  But,  on  the 
return  of  peace,  they  got  to  work  again  on  all  sides.  In  1808, 
the  minister  Chaptal  estimated  the  weight  of  the  cocoon  harvest 
at  between  five  or  six  thousand  kilogrammes ;  whilst  the  inven- 


222  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

tion  of  the  Jacquart  loom  gave  an  immense  impulse  to  the  weaving 
of  silk  stuffs.  Amongst  those  who  introduced  and  benefited  the 
art  of  sericiculture,  we  must  not  forget  Dandolo.  Dandolo,  who 
was  born  at  Venice  in  1758,  and  who  died  in  1819,  was  the  first 
who,  at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  applied  himself  seriously  to 
the  amelioration  of  the  processes  employed  in  the  cultivation  of 
silk.  He  endeavoured  to  regulate  the  temperature,  to  introduce 
more  order  into  the  distribution  of  the  food  to  the  worms, 
to  have  more  spacious  premises,  and  to  have  these  properly  ven- 
tilated. 

Now  we  are  on  this  subject,  we  must  mention  the  names  of 
those  who  at  the  present  day  have  rendered  important  services  to 
sericiculture, — such  as  M.  Camille  Beauvais,  who  raised  silkworm 
rearing  from  the  inactivity  into  which  it  had  been  plunged ; 
M.  Eugene  Robert,  who  founded  in  the  south  of  France  the  first 
successful  silkworm  nursery;  M.  Guerin-Meneville,  who  has 
devoted  his  life  to  the  study  of  the  same  question,  and  to  whom 
Europe  owes  the  introduction  and  the  acclimatization  of  some 
species  which  will  render  us,  perhaps,  one  day  very  great  services ; 
and  lastly,  M.  Robinet,  who  has  elucidated  several  practical 
questions  in  the  art  of  sericiculture.  In  bringing  to  a  close  this 
rapid  historical  epitome,  we  will  state  that  France  consumes 
annually  30,000  kilogrammes  of  silkworms'  eggs,  each  kilo- 
gramme being  at  the  present  time  worth  from  300  to  500  francs, 
and  even  more.  The  value  of  manufactured  silks  represents 
annually  about  8,000,000  francs ;  and  we  find  by  official  sta- 
tistics that  France  exported  in  1863,  silk  stuffs  to  the  value  of 
384,000,000  francs.  This  immense  trade  shows  how  much 
silk  is  now-a-days  everywhere  appreciated;  in  those  numerous 
tissues  called  taffeta,  satin,  and  velvet,  each  of  which  seems  to 
have  a  charm — a  peculiar  attraction.  The  consistency  of  the 
stuff,  the  smoothness,  the  softness  of  surface,  the  manner  in  which 
silk  receives  colours,  the  brightness,  fineness,  power  of  reflecting, 
the  rustling,  the  light  or  heavy  folds,  all  these  are  beauty, 
elegance,  and  luxury,  in  whatever  way  these  words  are  under- 
stood. 

The  Bombyx  mori  has,  however,  nothing  alluring  in  its  appear- 
ance. Other  caterpillars  of  the  genus  Bombyx  have  brilliant 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  223 

liveries  ;  they  are  adorned  with,  spots,  blue  as  sapphires,  green  as 
emeralds,  red  as  rubies,  but  produce  threads  without  bright- 
ness and  fineness.  The  humble  silkworm,  in  a  white  blouse, 
like  a  workman,  has  nothing  brilliant  in  its  dress,  and  yet  it 
gives  to  the  whole  world  its  most  beautiful  and  gorgeous  array. 
The  body  of  the  silkworm  is  composed  of  thirteen  distinct  segments. 
In  front,  are  three  pairs  of  articulated  legs,  which  will  become 
later  those  of  the  moth.  In  the  middle  and  towards  the  poste- 
rior part,  are  five  pairs  of  membranous  legs,  furnished  with  a  circle 
of  very  fine  bristles,  which  assist  the  animal  to  hook  itself  on  to 
leaves  and  stalks.  On  the  two  sides  of  its  body  are  eighteen 
stigmata,  or  respiratory  mouths. 

The  silkworm  is  remarkable  for  its  muzzle.  This  is  scaly, 
horny,  and  formed  of  one  single  piece.  The  mouth  is  provided 
with  six  small  articulated  pieces.  Below  is  a  simple  blade, 
the  upper  lip,  having  in  its  middle  a  hollow,  into  which 
the  animal  causes  the  edge  of  the  leaf  it  is  gnawing  to  enter, 
and  holds  it  thus  without  any  exertion.  Underneath  the  lip 
are  inserted  two  large  jaws,  which  cut  the  leaf  as  a  pair  of 
scissors.  Underneath,  some  weaker  jaws  divide  the  fragments, 
and  a  little  trunk,  articulated  on  to  each  jaw,  that  is  to  say,  a  palpus, 
pushes  them  back  towards  the  mouth,  and  prevents  the  smallest 
particles  of  the  leaf  from  falling.  And  lastly,  in  the  space  com- 
prised between  the  two  jaws,  is  an  under- lip,  which  completely  closes 
the  mouth  below.  At  the  extremity  of  this  piece  may  be  seen  a 
little  prolongation,  a  sort  of  papilla,  pierced  with  a  hole,  which  is 
the  orifice  which  gives  issue  to  the  silky  thread. 

The  organs  which  serve  for  the  elaboration  and  emission  of  the 
silk  have  a  peculiar  interest  for  us.  If  one  dissects  a  silkworm 
under  water,  one  succeeds  very  soon,  after  having  separated  it 
from  the  other  parts,  in  laying  bare  a  double  apparatus,  placed 
along  the  two  sides  of  the  intestinal  canal  and  below  it.  This 
is  the  apparatus  which  secretes  the  silk ;  it  is  the  double  seri- 
cipary  gland.  Each  one  of  these  glands  is  composed  of  a  tube 
formed  of  three  distinct  parts  (Fig.  201).  The  part  which  is 
nearest  to  the  tail  of  the  worm  is  a  sort  of  bent  tube,  ABC,  of 
a  thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  about  nine  inches  in  length, 
twisted  a  great  many  times  into  irregular  zigzags.  This  part  of 


224 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


the  silk- producing  organ  is  continued  in  an  enlarged  portion  DE, 
which  is  the  reservoir  of  the  silky  matter.  To  the  extremity,  E, 
of  this  reservoir,  is  attached  another  capillary  tube,  E  F.  These  two 
capillary  tubes,  proceeding  from  the  two  glands, 
unite  together  like  two  veinous  trunks,  as  the 
plate  shows,  in  one  single,  short  canal,  F,  which 
opens  in  the  mouth  of  the  worm,  at  its  under-lip. 
It  is  in  the  narrow  hinder  tubes  that  the  silky 
matter  is  formed.  It  collects  in  the  swollen  part 
D  E,  which  is,  properly  speaking,  the  reservoir  ; 
and  remains  there  in  the  glutinous  state.  Having 
reached  the  capillary  tubes,  it  begins  to  assume 
consistency,  and  forms  two  threads,  which  are 
united  together  at  the  point  of  junction  of  the 
tubes,  and  come  out  through  the  orifice,  with  the 
appearance  of  a  single  thread,  to  be  conducted  and 
directed  by  the  animal  to  those  points  it  has 
selected. 

It  was  hoped  that  by  taking  from  the  body  of 
the  worm  the  viscous  matter  contained  in  the 
glands,  silk  could  be  formed.  But  this  hope  was 
disappointed.  It  was  found  possible,  it  is  true, 
to  take  the  silk  out ;  to  draw  it  out  into  threads 
more  or  less  fine ;  but  up  to  this  time  it  has  only  been  possible  in 
this  way  to  obtain  a  matter  which,  when  dried,  more  or  less  resem- 
bles catgut,  and  is  easily  enough  spoilt  by  water. 

The  viscous  substance  contained  in  the  glands  must  then  be 
elaborated  by  the  insect  itself.  When  it  arrives  in  the  conduit 
common  to  the  capillary  tubes,  under  the  form  of  a  thread,  it  is 
impregnated  with  a  sort  of  varnish,  which  is  poured  into  them 
from  two  neighbouring  glands.  The  varnish  unites  the  two 
threads  into  one  single  thread,  and  imparts  to  it  the  brilliancy  of 
silk,  and  the  property  of  resisting  the  action  of  water.  It  is 
during  the  last  phases  of  the  worm's  development  that  the  silky 
matter  becomes  abundant  in  the  glands.  At  this  period,  the 
animal  eats  much ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  substance  to  be  con- 
verted is  furnished  by  the  leaf  of  the  tree  on  which  the  insect 
feeds. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  225 

In  consequence  of  this  having  been  remarked,  some  manufac- 
turers have  attempted  to  obtain  their  silk  directly  from  the 
mulberry  leaf ;  but  they  only  got  a  bad  floss  or  refuse  silk.  This 
is  because  the  silk  is  not  formed  in  the  mulberry  leaf.  The 
organs  of  insects  are  laboratories,  in  which  manipulations  un- 
known to  man  are  carried  on,  manipulations  which  he  has  not 
been  able  to  reproduce. 

After  this  rapid  glance  at  the  fundamental  parts  of  the  organism 
of  the  silkworm,  we  will  occupy  ourselves  with  the  natural  history, 
properly  so  called,  of  this  insect,  and  with  its  rearing,  carried  on 
with  a  view  to  the  production  of  silk. 

As  belonging  to  the  first  part  of  this  programme,  we  have  to 
speak  of  the  moult,  of  the  ages  of  the  silkworm,  of  its  maturity? 
of  its  mounting  or  ascending  season,  of  the  formation  of  the  cocoon, 
of  the  chrysalis,  of  the  moth,  and  the  eggs. 

The  name  moult  has  been  given  to  a  sort  of  crisis  during  which 
the  renewing  of  the  skin  of  larvae  takes  place.  When  it  ap- 
proaches, the  silkworm  changes  its  colour.  Its  robe,  which  was 
white  or  grey,  and  opaque,  becomes  yellow 
and  more  transparent.  The  head  swells  con- 
siderably, especially  above,  and  the  skin  becomes 
wrinkled  (Fig.  202).  The  worm  then  fasts, 
and  prepares  to  cast  its  skin.  It  places  here  Fip.m_Headof  the  Silk. 
and  there  some  silk  threads  on  the  sur-  worm  during  moulting. 
rounding  objects.  It  then  slips  under  these  threads,  so  that 
during  its  movements  the  old  skin  it  abandons  is,  so  to  speak, 
picked  up.  It  then  assumes  a 
peculiar  position,  that  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  '^03,  and  remains 
in  it  in  a  state  of  immobility 
which  has  been  called  sleep  „  _.. 

*       Fig.  203.— Position  of  Silkworm  while  moulting. 

(sommeil). 

During  this  sleep  the  new  skin  is  formed  under  the  old.  A  liquid 
oozes  forth  between  the  two  membranes  which  separates  them,  and 
allows  the  silkworm  to  leave  its  old  skin.  To  effect  this,  the  worm 
begins  by  raising  its  head,  and  by  making  contortions.  The  old  skin 
splits  round  the  muzzle  or  snout,  on  the  head  and  back  ;  then  by  dif- 
ferent movements  the  animal  emerges  from  its  skin,  which  remains 


226  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

held  up  by  the  silken  threads.  The  duration  of  the  time  occupied  in 
moulting  varies  with  the  degree  of  the  heat  or  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere ;  but  in  general  the  state  of  sleep  lasts  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours.  One  hour  after  the  crisis  the  worm  begins 
again  to  eat. 

The  ages  of  the  silkworm  are  the  periods  of  time  which  elapse 
between  one  moult   and    another.      If  one  observes  some   silk- 
worms when  the  temperature  is  favourable,   we  shall  find  that 
there  are  four  moults,  and  consequently  five  ages.     At  the  first 
age  (Fig.  204),  the  silkworm  is  black  and  hairy  ;  then  of  a  nut 
colour  at  the  moment  when  the  first  moult  is  going  to 
take  place.     "  The  appearance  presented  by  these  worms 
collected  together  on  a  leaf,"  says  Dandolo,  "  is  that  of  a 
Fig.  204.    downy  surface  of  a  dark  chestnut  colour,  in  the  midst  of 

Egg  and  " 

first  age.  which  one  sees  nothing  but  a  movement  of  little  animals 
having  their  heads  raised,  working  them  about,  and  presenting 
black,  shiny  muzzles.  Their  bodies  are  completely  covered  with 
hairs  arranged  in  straight  lines,  between  which  one  perceives 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  body  other  longer  hairs."* 


Fig.  205.  Fig.  206.  Fig.  207. 

Second  age.  Third  age.  Fourth  age. 

The  first  age  lasts  for  five  days.  At  the  second  (Fig.  205),  the 
worm  is  grey,  almost  without  down,  then  of  a  yellowish  white, 
and  one  sees  the  crescents  making  their  appearance  on  the  second 
and  fifth  segment.  At  the  third  age  (Fig.  206),  there  is  not  a 
single  hair  remaining,  and  the  worm  becomes  whitish,  and  is 
always  becoming  lighter.  The  third  age  lasts  six  days,  as  does 
also  the  fourth  (Fig.  207).  At  the  fifth  (Fig.  208),  the  worm 
has  very  nearly  reached  the  end  of  its  career  in  the  caterpillar 
state,  and  now  is  the  time  of  its  greatest  voracity.  This  age  is 
the  longest ;  it  lasts  nine  days. 

*  "L'Art  d'elever  les  Vers  a  sole,  par  le  Comte  Dandolo."  In  8vo.  2e  edition- 
Lyon,  1825. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  227 

At  each  of  these  periods  in  the  life  of  the  silkworm  may  be 
remarked  a  physiological  fact  to  which  has  been  given  the  name  of 
Jreze.  When  the  silkworm  has  just  moulted  it  eats  little,  but  the 
time  very  soon  arrives  when  it  does  so  with  extraordinary  avidity. 
It  is  indeed  insatiable.  The  freze  of  the  last  age  is  called  the 
grande  freze.  It  takes  place  about  the  seventh  day.  During 


Fig.  208.— Fifth  age. 

this  day  worms,  the  produce  of  thirty  grammes*  of  eggs,  consume 
in  weight  as  much  as  four  horses,  and  the  noise  which  their  little 
jaws  make  resembles  that  of  a  very  heavy  shower  of  rain.  It  is 
at  the  end  of  this  stage  that  the  insect  prepares  the  shelter  in 
which  is  to  be  brought  about  its  metamorphosis  into  a  chrysalis. 

A  little  while  before  this  it  ceases  to  eat,  turns  yellow,  and  be- 
comes as  transparent  as  a  grape.  It  is  now  said  to  have  reached 
its  maturity.  Up  till  this  moment  the  worm  had  never  tried  to 
leave  its  litter.  It  lived  a  sedentary  life,  and  never  thought  of 
wandering  away  from  its  food.  Now  it  is  seized  with  an  imperious 
desire  for  changing  its  quarters.  It  gets  up,  it  roams  about, 
and  moves  its  head  in  all  directions  to  find  some  place  to  cling 
on  to.  It  walks  over  everything  within  its  reach,  particularly 
over  those  obstacles  which  are  placed  vertically.  It  aspires,  not 
to  descend  like  the  heroes  of  classic  tragedy,  but  to  rise.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  this  period  of  the  silkworm's  life  has  received 
the  name  of  the  mounting  or  ascending  season.  It  now  looks  for 
a  convenient  place  in  which  to  establish  its  cocoon.  Every  one 
has  remarked  how  the  animal  sets  to  work  to  accomplish  its 
task.  It  begins  by  throwing  from  different  sides  threads  destined 
for  fixing  the  cocoon  ;  this  is  what  we  call  refuse-silk.  The 
proper  space  having  been  circumscribed  by  this  means,  the  worm 
begins  to  unwind  its  thread, — a  continuous  thread  of  about  a 
thousand  yards  long. 

*  One  gramme  =  15,4325  gr.  troy. 
Q2 


228  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

It  has  been  calculated,  let  us  say  by  the  way,  that  forty  thousand 
cocoons  would  suffice  to  surround  the  earth  at  the  equator  with  one 
thread  of  silk.  Folded  on  itself  almost  like  a  horse-shoe,  the  back 
inside,  the  legs  out,  the  worm  arranges  its  thread  all  round  its  body, 
describing  ovals  with  its  head.  It  approaches  nearer  the  points 
of  attachment.  As  long  as  the  cocoon  is  not  very  thick,  one 
can  watch  it  through  the  meshes  of  the  web  applying  and  fixing 
its  thread,  still  to  a  certain  degree  soft,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  it  contract  an  intimate  adherence  with  the  parts  already 
established. 

"  We  can  state,"  says  M.  Robinet,  "  that  the  silkworm  makes 
every  second  a  movement  extending  over  about  five  millimetres. 
The  length  of  the  threads  being  known,  it  follows  that  the  worm 
moves  its  head  three  hundred  thousand  times  in  making  its  cocoon. 
If  it  employs  seventy- two  hours  at  this  work,  it  is  a  hundred 
thousand  movements  every  twenty-four  hours,  four  thousand  one 
hundred  and  sixty- six  an  hour,  and  sixty-nine  a  minute,  that 
is  to  say,  a  little  more  than  one  a  second." 

About  the  fourth  day,  after  having  expended  all  its  silk,*  the 
worm  shut  up  in  the  cocoon  becomes  of  a  waxy  white  colour, 
and  swollen  in  the  middle  of  its  body.  The  abdominal  legs 
wither  away ;  the  six  fore  legs  approach  each  other  and  be- 
come black.  The  parts  of  the  mouth  tend  downwards ;  the 
skin  wrinkles.  Yery  soon  it  is  detached  and  pushed  down  towards 
the  hinder  part,  and  the  chrysalis  appears  under  the  rents  in 
the  skin.  It  is  at  first  white,  but  speedily  becomes  of  a  brown 
red. 

The  silkworm  remains  in  general  from  fifteen  to  seventeen 
days  in  the  pupa  state.  At  the  moment  of  hatching,  the  moth 
begins  by  breaking  the  little  skin  in  which  it  is  shut  up,  and  which 
is  pretty  thin.  But  how  can  it  come  out  of  the  silky  prison 
which  it  has  itself  built  ?  To  effect  this  it  makes  use  of  a  peculiar 
liquid  contained  in  a  little  bladder  with  which  its  head  is  provided, 
and  which  was  discovered  by  M.  Gruerin-Meneville.  It  moistens 
the  cocoon  with  this  liquid ;  with  this  it  soaks  through  and 
penetrates  the  whole  thickness  of  the  silken  wall  which  confines 
it.  The  threads  of  silk  of  which  it  is  composed  are  softened, 
*  "  Manuel  de  1'educateur  du  ver  a  sole,"  p.  37. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


229 


and  disunited,  but  not  broken.  The  moth  opens  a  passage  for 
itself  through  the  threads  thus  separated,  and  makes  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  light  of  day.  Its  wings  are  folded  back  on 
themselves,  and  it  is  still  quite  wet,  but  it  seeks  immediately 
for  a  good  place  in  which  to 
dry  itself,  and  in  a  little  time 
assumes  its  final  appearance 
(Figs.  209,  210).  The  female 
(Fig.  210)  has  whitish  wings, 
the  antennae  only  slightly  de- 

_  J  ,    i  FlS-  209.— Silkworm  Moth  (Bombyx 

veloped   and  pale,  the   abdomen  man),  male. 

voluminous,  cylindrical,  and  well  filled.  It  is  quiet,  heavy,  and 
stationary.  The  male  is  smaller ;  its  wings  are  tinged  with  grey, 
its  antennae  blackish  ;  it  moves  about,  beats  its  wings  together, 
and  is  lively  and  petulant. 

After  copulation,  before  laying  her  eggs,  the  female  looks  out 
for  a  place  suitable  for  this  purpose.  When  she  has  found  this 
place,  she  ejects  an  egg  co- 
vered with  a  viscous  liquid, 
which  causes  it  to  adhere  to 
the  body  upon  which  it  falls. 
Yery  soon  she  lays  a  second 
egg  by  the  side  of  the  first, 
then  a  third  by  the  side  of 
the  second,  and  so  on.  She 
very  rarely  piles  them  up  on 
each  other.  The  laying  lasts 
about  three  days ;  the  number 
of  eggs  is  from  300  to  700 
for  each  female.  These  eggs  are  generally  lenticular  and  flattened 
towards  the  centre.  At  the  moment  at  which  they  are  laid  they 
are  of  a  bright  yellow.  In  a  week  they  become  brown.  The 
colour  changes  then  *to  a  reddish  grey ;  lastly  it  becomes  of  a 
slaty  grey,  remaining  this  colour  during  the  autumn,  winter, 
and  a  great  part  of  the  spring.  Then  as  the  temperature  rises, 
the  colour  of  the  eggs  passes  successively  through  bluish,  violet, 
ashy,  and  yellowish  shades.  And  lastly  they  become  more  and 
more  whitish  every  day  as  the  hatching  time  approaches. 


Fig.  210. -Silkworm  Moth  (Bombyx 
mori),  female. 


230  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

If  looked  at  closely,  one  remarks  a  black  spot  and  a  brownish 
crescent  extending  along  the  circumference.  The  black  spot  is  the 
head  of  the  worm,  which  closely  touches  the  shell ;  the  crescent  is 
the  body,  which  is  already  covered  with  little  hairs.  When  it 
leaves  the  egg,  the  silkworm  gnaws  through  the  shell  on  its  side, 
never  on  its  flat  surface.  When  the  opening  is  large  enough,  it 
breaks  out  through  it,  head  foremost,  and  immediately  fixes  a 
thread  of  silk  to  any  object  it  can  reach,  no  doubt  so  as  to  pre- 
vent itself  from  falling.  Sometimes  the  opening  is  too  small  to 
allow  of  the  head  passing  out,  and  the  larva  is  forced  to  come  out 
backwards,  that  is  to  say,  tail  foremost.  At  other  times,  not  being 
able  to  set  its  head  free,  the  poor  animal  very  soon  dies  of  fatigue 
and  hunger. 

We  will  now  give  a  summary  of  the  rearing  of  the  silk- 
worm, that  is  to  say,  of  the  attention  which  must  be  paid  to 
this  insect  that  it  may  construct  its  cocoon  advantageously.  We 
will  call  to  our  aid  in  this  very  rapid  summary  the  works  or 
notices  of  MM.  Robinet,  Guerin-Meneville,  Eugene  Robert,  and 
Louis  Leclerc,  and  we  must  not  forget  the  excellent  and  classical 
Dandolo.* 

When  it  is  desired  to  rear  silkworms — magnans,  as  they  were 
called  in  old  French,  and  as  they  are  still  called  in  the  patois  of 
Languedoc — the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  obtain  good  eggs,  good  grain, 
to  use  the  technical  word,  and  then  to  choose  suitable  premises. 
The  essential,  the  fundamental  point,  in  the  rearing,  is  to  possess 
premises  in  which  the  air  is  easily  renewed.  The  worms  should 
have  as  much  air  as  possible  given  to  them  without  ever  being 
allowed  to  be  chilled.  There  is  no  better  means  of  attaining  this 
end  than  by  keeping  a  constant  open  fire  in  a  room,  and  by  letting 
air  into  the  room  from  another  chamber  which  separates  it  from 
the  open  air.  One  has,  in  this  way,  the  best  workroom  for  a  small 
rearing. 

In  the  workshop  are  arranged  racks,  by  the  aid  of  which  are 

*  "  L'Art  d' clever  lea  Vers  a  Soie,  par  le  Comte  de  Dandolo,  traduit  par  Philibert 
Fontaneilles."  In  8vo.  Lyons,  1825.  Robinet,  "  Manuel  de  1'Education  des  Vers  a 
Soie."  In  8vo.  Paris.  Gue>in  Meneville  et  Eugene  Robert,  "  Manuel  de  1'educa- 
tion  des  Vers  &  Soie."  In  18mo.  Paris.  Louis  Leclerc,  "  Petit  Magnanerie."  In 
18mo.  Paris. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  231 

placed,  at  the  distance  of  50  centimetres  from  each  other,  frames 
made  of  reeds.  These  frames  or  canisses,  as  they  are  called  in  the 
Cevennes,  may  be  from  1  metre  to  If  metre  in  breadth.  They 
should  be  placed  in  such  a  manner  that  one  can  easily  pass 
round  them  to  place  and  displace  the  worms,  and  to  distribute  their 
leaves  to  them  uniformly.  They  should  be  protected  by  a  small 
border  of  a  few  centimetres  in  height,  to  prevent  the  worms  from 
falling.  And  lastly,  they  should  be  covered  at  the  bottom 
with  large  sheets  of  paper.  A  provident  silkworm- rearer  has 
always  at  his  disposal  a  cellar  or  cool  room,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  stow  away  his  leaves  as  soon  as  they  are  brought  in  from 
the  country. 

What  we  have  just  said  applies  especially  to  a  small  rearing. 
In  large  establishments,  or  even  those  of  second-rate  importance, 
everything  is  in  advance  of  this,  and  mathematically  regulated : 
aspect  and  arrangement  of  rooms,  furniture  of  these  rooms, 
warming,  ventilation,  &c.  So,  for  a  rearing  house  for  300  grammes 
of  eggs,  the  building  should  be  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that 
its  front  and  back  look  east  and  west,  to  avoid  any  inequality  in 
the  heat  derived  from  the  sun.  It  ought  to  consist  of  a  ground- 
floor,  a  very  lofty  first-floor,  and  of  a  very  low  roof.  The 
ground- floor  comprises  the  chamber  of  incubation,  the  store-room 
for  leaves,  and  the  air  chamber  with  the  grate  intended  for  warmth 
and  ventilation.  The  first-floor  constitutes  the  rearing  room 
properly  so  called. 

But  let  us  leave  these  grand  industrial  establishments,  to 
return  to  our  rearing  houses  on  a  small  scale,  such  as  are  found 
among  the  peasants  of  the  Cevennes.  They  generally  receive  the 
silkworms'  eggs  before  the  end  of  the  winter.  In  order  to 
preserve  them  till  the  hatching  season,  they  are  placed  in  thin 
layers,  in  a  piece  of  folded  woollen  stuff,  which  must  be  hung 
up  in  a  cool,  but  not  a  damp  place,  exposed  to  the  north.  As 
soon  as  the  buds  of  the  mulberry  tree  begin  to  be  partially  open, 
they  proceed  to  the  incubation  of  the  eggs.  They  are  spread 
out  on  sheets  of  paper,  in  very  thin  layers,  placed  on  a  table  in 
a  room  having  a  southern  aspect,  and  left  thus  during  three  or 
four  days,  taking  care  to  prevent  the  rays  of  the  sun  from  touch- 
ing them.  It  is  necessary  also,  from  time  to  time,  to  open  the 


232  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

windows.  After  three  or  four  days,  the  fire  is  lighted,  taking 
care  not  to  have  more  heat  than  13°  Centigrade  round  about  the 
table  which  supports  the  eggs,  and  which  should  be  placed  as  far 
as  possible  from  the  fire.  Each  day  the  room  is  warmed  a  little 
more,  in  such  a  way  that  the  temperature  is  raised  from  1°  to  2° 
a  day,  until  25°  Centigrade  of  heat  have  been  attained,  at  which 
temperature  it  is  to  be  maintained  when  the  eggs  have  reached 
the  last  stage,  and  till  the  hatching  is  terminated.  On  the 
first  day  few  worms  are  hatched  ;  but  the  hatching  on  the  second 
day  is  very  abundant,  as  also  that  of  the  third.  Of  these  newly- 
born  worms  two  divisions  are  made,  separated  by  an  interval 
of  twenty- four  hours.  The  worms  which  are  born  afterwards 
are  thrown  away,  unless  they  are  so  abundant  that  they  can  be 
made  a  third  batch  of,  which  is  to  be  mixed  up  with  the  second  at 
the  period  of  the  moult. 

In  the  large  rearing  houses  there  is  a  special  chamber  for  the 
incubation.  Yarious  simple,  convenient,  cheap  apparatuses,  whose 
main  object  is  to  create  a  permanent  warm  and  damp  atmosphere, 
whose  degree  of  heat  can  be  regulated  at  will,  have  been  proposed. 
M.  Louis  Leclerc,  in  his  pamphlet  entitled  "  Petite  Magnanerie," 
has  given  a  description  and  drawing  of  a  little  box,  which  is  verv 
useful  for  facilitating  the  hatching  of  eggs.  We  refer  those  of 
our  readers  who  wish  for  further  information  on  the  subject  to 
that  work.  As  soon  as  the  worms  are  hatched,  the  eggs  are 
covered  with  net,  and  over  this  are  placed  mulberry  boughs, 
covered  with  tender  leaves,  on  which  all  the  little  worms  con- 
gregate. They  are  then  lifted  up  with  a  hook  made  of  thin  wire, 
and  the  worms  are  placed  on  a  table  covered  with  paper,  leaving 
a  proper  space  between  each.  They  are  given,  as  their  first  meal, 
tender  leaves  cut  into  little  pieces  with  a  knife.  These  are  the 
operations  gone  through  for  the  two  raisings  of  worms  on  the 
second  and  third  day  of  the  hatching.  During  this  first  age 
they  give  them  from  six  to  eight  meals  a  day,  taking  caie  to 
distribute  their  food  to  them  as  equally  as  possible.  The  first 
meal  is  given  at  five  o'clock  in  the  morning ;  the  last  at  eleven  or 
twelve  o'clock  at  night. 

When  the  moult  is  approaching,  the  young  ones  are  put  on  to 
boughs  having  tender  leaves,  so  that  they  can  be  moved  on  litters 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


233 


as  thin  and  as  clean  as  possible,  and  go  to  sleep  in  a  good  state  of 
health.  When  the  mass  of  worms  is  well  awake  again,  the  next 
thing  to  do  is  to  take  them  off  the  litter  on  which  they  moulted 
and  to  give  them  food.  If  this  problem  were  proposed  to  a 
person  strange  to  the  operation  which  is  now  occupying  our 
attention — to  separate  the  worms  from  the  faded  and  withered 
food  upon  which  they  are  reposing,  without  touching  them, — he 
would  certainly  be  very  much  at  a  loss  what  to  answer. 
The  solution  of  this  problem  presented  for  a  long  time  great 
difficulties,  and  occasioned  numerous  reverses  in  the  rear- 
ing. Now-a-days,  thanks  to  the  employment  of  a  net,  the 
delitement,  or  taking  them  off  their  bed,  has  become  an  easy 
operation. 

Over  the  worms,  which  cover  a  table,  is  spread  a  net,  the  meshes 
of  which  are  broad  enough  to  allow  them  to  pass  through  On 
this  net  are  spread  the  leaves  which  are  to  compose  a  meal. 


Fig.  211. — Lozenge-shaped  net. 


Fig.  212.— Square  net. 


The  worms  immediately  leave  the  old  food,  and  get  on  to  the 
new  leaves.  They  then  lift  the  litter  with  the  worms,  and 
throw  away  the  old  leaves,  now  unoccupied,  clean  the  table,  and 
replace  the  net  with  the  worms.  At  the  next  delitement  the  first 
net  is  found  under  the  litter.  Figs.  211  and  212  represent  two 
forms  of  these  nets  made  of  thread. 

Thread  nets,  which  were  of  great  use,  have  been  supplanted 
lately,  with  great  advantage,  by  paper  ones,  which  were  invented 


234  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

by  M.  Eugene  Robert.  These  are  leaves  of  paper,  of  a  peculiar 
manufacture,  pierced  with  holes  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the 
worms  which  are  to  pass  through  them.  The  paper  net  can  be 
used  advantageously  also  for  separating  the  worms  that  are  too 
near  together,  or,  as  they  say,  for  the  dedoublement.  Formerly, 
the  delitement  and  the  dedoublement  were  done  by  hand — a  tedious 
work,  and  one  that  presented  serious  disadvantages.  Now-a-days, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  worms  themselves  undertake  these  two  perilous 
operations. 

At  the  second  age  they  still  cut  the  leaves  for  the  worms,  but 
into  larger  pieces,  and  proportioned  to  their  size.  During  the 
day,  the  temperature  of  the  room  ought  to  be  kept  to  21°  Cen- 
tigrade, but  it  may  be  lowered  by  1°  or  2°  during  the  night. 
Towards  the  end  of  this  age  they  have  only  four  meals.  When 
the  worms  are  on  the  point  of  going  to  sleep,  their  meals  are 
decreased. 

During  the  third  age  the  number  of  the  meals  is  kept  to  four, 
the  first  being  given  towards  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and 
the  last  between  ten  and  eleven  o'clock  at  night.  The  leaf  is  cut 
into  much  larger  pieces,  and  distributed  as  equally  as  possible. 
The  delitement  and  the  dedoublement  are  proceeded  with  as  in  the 
preceding  age.  One  begins  to  find  pretty  often  during  this  period 
of  the  life  of  worms,  some  luisettes,  that  is  to  say,  worms  which 
have  not  strength  enough  to  moult.  They  are  larger  than  those 
just  woke  up,  and  that  have  not  as  yet  eaten,  and  are  shiny.  They 
must  be  carefully  removed,  for  they  will  not  be  long  before  they 
die,  and  infect  the  air  of  the  room. 

During  the  fourth  age  they  no  longer  cut  the  leaves,  but  give  them 
a  great  deal  more  at  once.  The  result  is  that  the  litters  increase 
in  thickness,  and  that  the  delitement  must  be  performed  oftener ;  for 
the  rest,  four  meals  are  always  necessary.  Many  luisettes  may  be 
seen  during  the  fourth  age.  The  moult  which  follows  the  fourth 
age  is  the  most  critical  phase  in  the  life  of  the  silkworm.  During 
their  sleep  they  are  a  prey  to  acute  suffering,  and  are  plunged 
into  a  state  of  lethargy  which  resembles  death.  The  dryest  and 
cleanest  litters  diffuse  very  soon  a  sickly  smell.  This  moult 
lasts  from  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours.  During  this  time  the 
room  should  be  kept  to  at  least  22°  Centigrade. 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  235 

When  they  have  awoke  out  of  this  last  sleep  the  attendant 
should  continually  be  on  his  guard,  as  it  is  then  that  diseases 
break  out.  The  worms  suffering  from  these  different  diseases 
have  received  different  names.  There  are  besides  the  luisettes,  the 
arpians,  that  is  to  say,  worms  that  have  exhausted  all  their  energy- 
in  the  work  of  the  last  moult,  and  have  not  even  strength  to  eat ;. 
— the  yellow  or  fat  worms,  which  are  swollen,  of  a  yellowish 
colour,  and  which  very  easily  die.  The  flats  or  mous,  the  soft  or 
indolent  ones  which,  after  having  eaten  a  great  deal  and  become- 
very  fat,  die  miserably  and  enter  into  a  state  of  putrefaction. 
And  lastly,  it  is  at  this  age  that  the  muscadine,  which  hardly 
shows  itself  at  any  other  age  of  the  insect,  appears  with  great 
intensity. 

The  muscadine  is  a  terrible  scourge  to  the  rearers  of  silkworms^ 
The  losses  which  result  from  this  disease  in  France  are  estimated 
at  at  least  one-sixth  of  the  profits.  No  particular  symptom 
allows  of  our  recognising  the  existence  of  this  disease  in  worms 
which,  however,  contain  its  germ.  Only,  the  worm,  which  has 
eaten  up  to  that  time  as  usual,  appears  almost  in  a  moment  to  change 
to  a  duller  white  ;  its  movements  become  slower,  it  becomes  soft, 
and  is  not  long  before  it  dies.  Seven  or  eight  days  after  its  death 
it  becomes  reddish  and  completely  rigid.  Twenty-four  hours 
afterwards  a  white  efflorescence  shows  itself  round  the  head  and 
rings,  and  soon  after  the  whole  body  becomes  floury.  This  flour 
is  a  fungus  called  Botrytis  bassiana,  of  which  the  mycelium 
develops  itself  in  the  fatty  tissue  of  the  caterpillar,  attacks  the 
intestines,  and  fructifies  on  the  exterior.  This  fungus  has  been 
considered  as  the  immediate  cause  of  the  muscadine,  and  has  been 
also  regarded  as  the  last  symptom  or  end  of  the  disease.  The 
communication  of  the  disease  by  contagion  has  alternately  been 
admitted  and  denied.  As  its  true  cause,  and  any  efficacious 
means  of  opposing  it,  are  still  unknown,  -the  breeders  of  silk- 
worms must  be  content  to  apply,  so  as  to  prevent  or  struggle 
against  this  dreadful  scourge,  the  precepts  of  hygiene :  good 
ventilation,  excessive  cleanliness,  frequent  delitements,  and  good 
food  properly  prepared. 

After  the  muscadine,  we  must  mention  another  epidemic  disease 
still  more  terrible  :  the  gattine.  This  disease  shows  itself  from  the 


236  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

very  beginning  of  the  rearing,  and  increases  in  intensity  at  each 
age,  so  that  the  number  of  worms  able  to  enter  regularly  into  the 
moult  becomes  smaller  and  smaller.  We  are  still  in  a  state  of 
utter  ignorance  as  to  the  cause  of  this  last  affection,  which  has 
occasioned,  for  the  last  ten  years,  incalculable  losses  in  the  rear- 
ing houses,  which  threatens  the  silkworm  with  complete  destruc- 
tion, and  which  in  the  meanwhile  has  ruined  the  unfortunate 
countries  of  the  Cevennes,  the  principal  seat  of  sericiculture  in 
Prance. 

During  the  fifth  age,  the  worms  become  large  so  quickly  that 
on  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  they  are  obliged  to  be  moved  away  from 
each  other  on  the  litter.  The  delitement  must  be  made  every  two 
days,  or,  indeed,  every  day  now,  on  account  of  the  enormous 
amount  of  the  excrement ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  good  venti- 
lation must  be  constantly  maintained.  The  temperature  of  the 
room  should  now  be  kept  to  24°,  without  ever  exceeding  this 
degree  of  heat.  When  it  is  perceived  that  the  worms  wish  to 
ascend  or  mount,  there  are  placed  on  the  tables,  at  certain  distances 
from  each  other,  little  sprigs  of  heather,  or  very  dry  branches 
of  light  wood. 

When  the  worms  begin  to  mount  into  the  heather,  one  must 
encabaner,  that  is  to  say,  form  with  these  branches  little  hedges, 


Fig.  213.— Sprigs  of  heather  arranged  so  that  the  silkworms  may  mount  into  them. 

curved  back  like  a  hut  or  cradle,  the  openings  of  which  are, 
on  an  average,  seventeen  inches  or  so  (Fig.  213).  At  the 
expiration  of  twenty-four  hours,  all  the  good  worms  have 
mounted.  The  laggards  who  remain  under  the  cabanes  are 
taken  off  by  hand,  and  placed  on  a  table,  which  is  immediately 
encabaned. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


237 


The  cocoons  spun  on  these  branches  of  heather  ought  to  be 
large,  heavy,  and  well-shaped.  The  good  cocoons  are  regular; 
their  ends  are  rounded  and  not  pierced;  and  they  are  hard] 


Fig.  214  —Spherical  cocoon  Fig.  215.— Cocoon  of  Bombyx  mori, 

of  the  Bombyx  mori.  drawn  in  towards  the  middle. 

especially  at  their  extremities,  and  have  a  fine  grain.  These  are 
cylindrical.  The  best  are  drawn  in  towards  the  middle,  or  have  a 
concavity  on  either  side  of  it  (Fig.  215).  Every  one  knows  that 
there  are  white  and  yellow  cocoons.  They  are  the  produce  of 
different  races  of  worms. 

Commerce  recognises  two  kinds  of  white  silk :  the  first  white 
and  the  second  white.  The  silk  of  the  first  white  is  produced  by 
the  race  Sina,  the  cocoons  of  which  are  of  a  perfect  and  azured 
white.  They  produce  the  most  beautiful  and  most  precious  silk, 
and  serve  for  the  fabrication  of  light  and  delicate  coloured  tissues. 
The  silk  of  the  second  white  is  furnished  by  two  races :  the 
Espagnolet  and  the  Roquemaure. 

The  races  that  produce  yellow  cocoons  are  more  numerous  than 
the  white  ones.  The  yellow  races  are  divided  into  three  groups  : 
those  that  have  small,  middle-sized,  or  large  cocoons.  The  first 
and  second  are  stronger,  and  more  esteemed  than  the  last. 

The  greatest  number  of  the  races  of  silkworms  have,  let  us  here 
mention,  white  and  yellow  cocoons ;  there  are  some,  however,  of 
those  whose  cocoon  is  of  a  greenish  white,  or  even  quite  green,  or 


238 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


of  a  reddish  green.  One  race  raised  in  Tuscany,  near  Pistoia, 
has  cocoons  of  a  pale  rose  colour ;  and,  lastly,  mention  has  been 
made  of  cocoons  of  a  purple  colour. 


Fig.  216.—  Larva,  pupa,  couoon,  and  moth  of  Bomlyx  mori. 

When  the  cocoons  are  completed,  the  people  in  charge  of  the 
rearing  establishments  separate  them  from  the  heather  and  sell 
them  to  the  silk-spinners.  But  they  must  manage  to  get  these 
cocoons  into  a  state  in  which  they  will  remain  entire  during 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


239 


a  long  time.  They  must,  in  other  words,  kill  the  chrysalides, 
to  prevent  the  cocoons  being  pierced  by  the  moth.  To  kill  the 
chrysalides  so  as  to  prevent  the  development  of  the  imago  is 
an  operation  which  is  called  the  etouffage,  or  stifling. 

To  effect  this  stifling,  the  co- 
coons are  exposed  to  a  high  tem- 
perature. Formerly,  in  the  Ce- 
vennes,  the  cocoons  were  placed 
in  a  baker's  oven,  heated  for  bak- 
ing bread.  But  they  ran  the  risk 
thus  of  being  burnt,  or  of  a  certain 
number  of  chrysalides  remaining 
alive.  Now,  to  kill  the  chrysalides, 
they  make  use  of  steam  at  100°, 
produced  by  water  boiling  in  a 
vessel,  and  which  passes  through 
wicker  baskets  filled  with  cocoons. 

The  rearer  must  also  take  care 
at  the  time  he  gathers  them,  to 
separate  the  cocoons  which  are 
to  provide  eggs  for  the  next  year. 
As  the  females  are  heavier  than 
the  male  cocoons,  they  easily  sort 
them  with  a  pair  of  scales. 

To  obtain  the  eggs  or  grain,  the  cocoons  are  fixed  on  sheets 
of  brown  paper,  covered  with  a  slight  coating  of  paste  made 
of  flour.  They  are  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  moths 
shall  find  no  obstacle  when  they  come  out  of  them,  head  fore- 
most ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  they  may  be  able  to  reach 
with  their  legs  the  cocoon  which  is  opposite  them,  so  as  to 
hang  on  to  it,  and  to  facilitate  their  exit  from  their  own  cocoon 
(Fig.  218).  The  meal  and  female  cocoons  are  pasted  on  separate 
sheets. 

It  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days  after  the  montee  or  mounting, 
and  when  the  temperature  of  the  rooms  has  been  kept  between 
20°  and  25°,  that  the  moths  begin  to  be  hatched.  As  they  appear, 
they  are  seized  by  their  wings  and  placed  on  cloths  stretched  out 


Fig.  217.— Apparatus  for  stifling  the 
chrysalides  in  the  cocoons. 


240 


THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 


Fig.  218.— Sheet  of  paper  with  rows  of  cocoons  pre- 
pared for  the  exit  of  the  moths  destined  for  laying  eggs. 


for  the  purpose,  where  they  are  left  for  about  an  hour,  till  their 
wings  have  fallen  flat  on  their  bodies.     As  soon  as  they  have 

evacuated  a  red  liquor,  the 
males  and  females,  which  up 
to  that  time  have  been  apart, 
are  put  together. 

After  copulation,  they 
again  separate  them.  They 
stick  sheets  of  paper  on 
to  screens,  putting  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  females 
on  each  sheet  (Fig.  219). 
It  is  here  the  moths  lay 
their  eggs.  The  sheets  of 
paper,  covered  with  eggs, 
are  then  hung  on  wires,  at  a  small  distance  from  the  ceiling  of 
a  room  having  a  northern  aspect,  which  is  never  warmed.  They 

remain  thus,  exposed  to 
all  variations  of  temper- 
ature, till  the  return  of 
the  warm  weather.  We 
will  say  a  few  words  to 
bring  this  subject  to  an 
end,  on  the  winding  of 
cocoons  and  the  spinning 
of  silk. 

The  winding  of  cocoons 
is  an  operation  which  at 
first  sight  appears  very 
simple,  but  which  is  in 
reality  a  difficult  and  delicate  process.  It  requires  unremitting 
attention,  great  experience,  and  a  delicacy  of  touch  which  can 
only  be  found  in  the  fingers  of  woman,  or  rather,  in  the  fingers 
of  certain  women. 

The  woman  who  is  spinning,  stands  before  a  sort  of  loom  which 
is  called  tour  (Fig.  220).  Under  her  hand  is  a  copper  containing 
water,  which  she  heats  to  the  required  degree  by  opening  the  tap 
of  a  tube,  which  brings  a  current  of  steam.  She  plunges  the 


Fig.  219.— Sheets  of  paper  stuck  into  screens,  and  inclined 
for  the  reception  of  moths. 


242  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

cocoons  into  the  hot  water,  and  moves  them  about  in  it,  to  soften 
the  gummy  substance  which  sticks  the  silken  threads  of  the 
cocoon  together.  Then  she  beats  them,  with  a  light  hand,  with  a 
small  birch-broom.  The  threads  of  the  cocoons  get  caught  in  the 
extremities  of  the  twigs  of  which  the  little  broom  is  made,  and  the 
workwoman  seizes  with  her  fingers  the  bundle  of  threads,  and 
shakes  them  about  till  she  perceives  that  they  are  all  single,  and 
in  a  fit  state  to  be  joined  together. 

Let  us  suppose  that  it  is  wished  now  to  make  up  a  brin  or 
staple  by  uniting  together  the  ends  of  five  cocoons.  She  chooses 
five  ends  in  the  mass,  makes  of  these  a  bundle,  and  introduces  it 
into  the  hole  of  a  Jiliere.  She  makes  two  staples  (brins)  at  once, 
one  on  her  right,  the  other  on  her  left  hand.  She  then  brings 
them  together,  she  crosses  them,  rolls  them,  and  twists  them, 
the  one  on  the  other,  many  times  ;  after  which,  she  separates 
them  from  above  and  keeps  them  well  apart,  making  each  of 
them  pass  into  a  hook  at  a  distance,  from  which  they  are  going 
to  twist  round  into  a  hank,  separately,  on  a  wheel.  The  two 
threads  thus  twisted  are  drawn  close  together,  compressed,  and 
become  one,  getting  round  by  rolling  on  each  other,  and  being  kept 
in  continual  motion,  drawn  out  as  they  are  by  the  rapid  motion  of 
the  wheel. 

The  difficulty  which  the  emptying  the  cocoon  of  its  silk  thread 
presents,  makes  us  understand  what  difficulties  those  manufacturers 
must  have  met  with  who  have  lately  attempted  to  extract  from 
the  stalks  of  mulberry  leaves  a  sort  of  silk.  We  will  enter 
into  no  details  of  the  attempts  which  have  been  made  to  accom- 
plish this  object  in  our  time,  attempts  which  have,  however, 
been  crowned  with  no  success  whatever.  We  will  confine  our- 
selves to  reminding  the  reader  that  these  attempts  are  far  from 
being  of  recent  origination,  since  they  date  back  to  as  far  as 
Olivier  de  Serres,  the  father  of  French  serici culture. 

In  a  little  work  published  by  Olivier  de  Serres,  in  1603,  under 
the  title  of  Cueillette  de  la  Sole,  "  The  Gathering  of  Silk,"  we  find 
a  memoir  entitled :  La  second  richesse  du  Murier  qui  se  trouve  en 
son  escorce,  pour  en  faire  des  toiles  de  toute  sorte,  mon  moins 
utile  que  la  sole  provenant  d'icelui,  "  The  second  wealth  of  the 
mulberry  tree  which  is  found  in  its  bark,  how  to  make  of  it  cloth 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  243 

of  all  sorts,  not  less  useful  than  the  silk  derived  from  this  tree." 
Olivier  de  Serres  proves  in  this  memoir  that  the  second  bark  or, 
liber  of  the  mulberry  tree  contains  a  fibre  capable  of  replacing 
hemp  or  flax,  and  he  describes  the  processes  by  which  this  may  be 
obtained.  The  processes  which  had  been  proposed  by  Olivier  de 
Serres  in  1603,  were  resumed  in  the  Cevennes  a  dozen  years 
ago  by  M.  Duponchel  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  by 
M.  Cabanis,*  who  operated  on  bark  instead  of  taking  the  whole 
of  the  wood  of  the  mulberry  tree.  But  none  of  these  attempts 
have  given  any  good  results  up  to  the  present  moment. 

The  various  diseases  which,  for  the  last  fifteen  years,  have 
been  so  fatal  to  the  mulberry  silkworm,  have  suggested  the  idea 
of  acclimatising  in  Europe  other  silk-producing  Bombyces,  if  not 
with  the  view  of  superseding,  at  least  as  auxiliaries  to  the  mul- 
berry species.  The  genus  Attacus  has  furnished  these  auxiliaries. 
Among  the  species  which  have,  in  this  respect,  the  greatest 
claims  to  our  attention,  we  must  place  in  the  first  rank  those 
which  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  the  oak  tree.  Indeed,  the  trees 
which  can  be  made  use  of  for  their  cultivation  are  very  numerous 
in  Europe,  and,  moreover,  the  silk  produced  by  these  worms  appears 
to  possess  superior  qualities. 

There  are  three  oak-feeding  species  of  the  genus  Attacus.  They 
are  Yarna-Mal,  Pernyi,  and  Mylitta. 

The  silk  of  Yama-Ma'i  is  as  bright  as  that  of  the  mulberry  silk- 
worm, but  a  little  less  fine  and  strong,  and  occupies  the  first  rank 
after  it.  If  we  could  succeed  in  acclimatising  this  species  it  would 
supply  any  deficiency  there  might  be  in  our  crops  of  ordinary 
silk. 

The  eggs  of  the  Attacus  Yama-Mal  were  brought  from  Japan, 
where  this  worm  is  reared,  conjointly  with  the  mulberry  silk- 
worm, in  1862.  The  larvae  hatched  at  Paris,  in  1863,  were 
green,  of  a  great  size,  remained  in  that  state  eighty-two  days, 
and  were  easily  reared.  Their  cocoon  resembles  that  of  the 
mulberry  species.  It  is  composed  of  a  beautiful  silk  of  a  silvery 
whiteness  in  the  interior,  and  of  a  more  or  less  bright  green 
on  the  exterior.  The  moth  is  very  large  and  beautiful,  of  a 
bright  yellow  colour,  approaching  orange. 

*  See  our  "  Annee  scientifique,"  7e  annee,  p.  432. 
R2 


244 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


We  give  a  drawing  of  the  Attacus  Yama-Mai,  taken  from  the 
plates  which  accompany  M.  Guerin-Meneville's  memoir.* 


Fig.  221. — Larva  of  Attacus  (Bombyx)  Yama-Mai'. 

Fig.  221  represents  the  larva  or  caterpillar  two- thirds  natural 


Fig.  222.— Cocoon  of  Attacus  (Bombyx)  Yama-Mai. 

size  ;  Fig.  222,  the  cocoon,  drawn  on  the  same  scale  ;  and  Fig.  223, 
the  moth. 

In   1866,  M.  Camille  Personnat  published  a  very  interesting 

*  Sur  le  Ver  a  sole  du  Chene  et  son  introduction  en  Europe.  Extrait  du  M agasin 
de  Zoologie,  1855,  No.  VI. 

[For  an  account  of  experiments  conducted  in  England  by  Dr.  Wallace,  which 
unfortunately  were  a  complete  failure  as  far  as  rearing  the  moth  went,  see  an  essay 
by  that  gentleman  in  "  The  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London," 
3rd  series,  vol.  v.  pt.  5.  Longmans  and  Co.  The  results  of  an  experiment  which 
give  the  greatest  hopes  of  success,  will  be  found  in  "The  Entomologist"  for 
October,  1867.— ED.] 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


245 


monograph  of  Yama-Mai,  which  may  be  consulted  with  profit  by 
both  cultivators  of  silk  and  naturalists.* 


Fig.  223.— Attacus  (Bombyx)  Yama-Mai. 

Attacus  pernyi  yields  a  remarkably  beautiful  silk,  fine,  strong, 
and  brilliant,  which  can  be  spun  and  dyed  with  great  ease.  The 
tissues  obtained  from  it  partake  of  the  qualities  of  ordinary  silk,  of 
wool,  and  of  cotton.  This  species  of  Attacus,  which  is  reared  on 
the  oak  in  Mandchouria,  has  given  rise  to  great  hopes  in  France. 
The  cocoons  and  moths  of  this  worm  were  exhibited  for  the  first 


Fig.  224. — Cocoon  of  Attacus  (Bombyx)  pernyi. 

time  at  the  Universal  Exhibition  of  1855.     They  were  reared  by 
M.  Jordan,  of  Lyons,  from  some  cocoons  sent  over  from  China  by 

*   Le  Ver  a  sole  du  Chene  (Bombyx  Tama-Mdi\  son  histoire,  sa  description,  ses 
mceurs.     8vo,  avec  planches  coloriees,     A  Laval,  a  1'ecole  de  sericiculture. 


246  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

the  missionaries.  It  is  much  to  be  desired  that  this  species 
may  be  acclimatised  in  Europe. 

Figs.  224  and  225  represent,  after  drawings  in  the  memoir 
of  M.  Guerin-Meneville,  already  referred  to,  the  cocoon  and 
moth  of  the  Attacus  pernyi. 

The  silk  which  Attacus  Mylitta  produces  is  perhaps  superior  to 
that  of  Pernyi.  "When  the  cocoons  are  properly  prepared,  the 
silk  can  with  ease  be  wound  off  from  one  end  of  them  to  the  other.. 
This  worm  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Bengal  and  of  Calcutta,  and 
also  at  Lahore,  and  its  silk  is  exported  in  considerable  quantities 


Fig.  225.— Attacus  (Bombyx)  pernyi. 

under  the  name  of  tusseh.  Brownish  stuffs  are  made  of  it  in  India 
of  firm  and  bright  texture,  which  are  used  for  summer  clothing,  or 
for  covering  furniture. 

Figs.  226  and  227  represent  the  moth  and  the  cocoon  of  Attacus 
Mylitta  after  M.  Gnerin-Meneville. 

In  1855,  M.  de  Chavannes  reared  this  species  in  the  open  air, 
near  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland.  This  treatment  succeeded  per- 
fectly, without  any  degeneration,  for  many  years.  It,  however, 
died  out  at  last,  from  the  effects,  perhaps,  of  too  great  a  difference 
in  the  climate,  or  from  those  accidents,  still  so  little  under- 
stood, to  which  even  the  insects  of  our  own  country  are  sub- 
ject. This  was  unfortunate,  as  this  species  is  one  of  those 
whose  acclimatisation  in  Europe  is  the  most  to  be  desired,  for  it 
would  render  great  service  to  the  cultivators  of  silk. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


247 


It  remains  for  us  to  speak  of  two  other  species  which  are  very 
important,   inasmuch  as  their  domestication  in  Europe  is  now  an 


±it5. — Atiacua  (Bombyx)  Mylitta. 


accomplished  fact.    We  mean  the  Attacus  or  Bombyx  of  the  Ailan- 
thus,  and  also  that  of  the  Castor-oil  plant. 

Every   one   has    heard   of    the   Ailanthus    silkworm    (Attacus 
(Bombyx)    Cynthia),  whose  acclimatisation  in   Europe   has   been 


Fig.  '221. — Cocoon  of  Attacus  (Bouibyx)  Mylitta. 


materially  assisted  by  the  admirable  and  persevering  efforts  of 
M.  Gruerin-Meneville. 

The  Ailanthus  worm  is  a  native  of  Japan  and  of  the  north  of 
China.  It  was  brought  over  in  1858  by  Annibale  Fantoni,  and 
sent  to  M.  Gruerin-Meneville  by  MM.  Griseri  and  Colomba,  of 
Turin.  When  it  is  nearly  full-grown,  it  is  emerald  green,  with 
the  head,  the  feet,  and  the  last  segment  of  a  beautiful  golden 
yellow,  and  has  black  spots  on  each  segment.  This  worm,  in 
its  full-grown  state,  is  represented  by  Fig.  228  ;  in  the  same 


248  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

figure  are  also  represented  the  eggs  and  the  cocoon.  The  moth 
has  the  abdomen  yellowish  underneath,  with  little  white  tufts. 
Its  wings  are  traversed  by  a  white  band,  which  is  followed  exte- 
riorly by  a  line  of  a  bright  rose  ;  each  wing  is  also  marked  with 
a  lunula  or  crescent- shaped  spot. 

In  1858  M.  (ruerin-Meneville  presented  to  the  Academic 
des  Sciences  of  Paris  the  first  moths  and  the  first  eggs  laid  in 
France  of  the  Attacus  Cynthia.  This  able  entomologist  demon- 


Fig.  228.— Eggs,  larvse,  and  cocoons  of  Attacus  (Bombyx)  Cynthia. 

strated  very  soon  afterwards — 1st,  that  the  caterpillars  of  this 
insect  can  be  reared  in  the  open  air,  and  with  scarcely  any  cost 
for  management ;  2ndly,  that  it  produces  two  crops  a  year  in  the 
climate  of  Paris  and  the  north  of  France ;  3rdly,  that  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  Ailanthus  or  false  Japan  varnish  tree,  on  which  this 
insect  lives,  is  easy  even  in  the  most  sterile  soil. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  249 

M.  Guerin-Meneville  showed  still  farther  that  ailantine,  the 
textile  matter  furnished  by  the  cocoon  of  the  Cynthia,  is  a  sort  of 
iloss  silk  holding  a  middle  place  between  wool  and  the  silk  of  the 
mulberry- tree  worm,  and  which,  as  it  can  be  produced  at  scarcely 
any  expense,  would  be  very  cheap,  and  would  serve  for  the  fabri- 
cation of  what  are  called  fancy  stuffs,  for  which  ordinary  floss  silk 
is  now  used.  In  1862  M.  Guerin-Meneville  sent  in  a  report  to 
the  Minister  of  Agriculture  on  the  progress  of  the  cultivation  of 
the  Ailanthus,  and  of  the  breeding  of  the  silkworm,  which  was 
reared  in  the  open  air  on  this  tree.  He  mentions,  in  his  report, 
the  rapid  development  of  the  cultivation  of  the  tree  in  France, 
the  great  number  of  eggs  of  the  Ailanthus  silkworm  sold,  the 
ioundation  of  a  model  silkworm  nursery  at  Yincennes,  and  this 
one  great  point  gained,  that  they  had  found  out  the  way  of 
unwinding  the  silk  from  the  cocoons  of  the  Cynthia  in  one 
unbroken  and  continuous  thread. 

Till  then  European  industry  had  only  succeeded  in  drawing  from 
the  cocoons  of  the  Ailanthus  silkworm  a  floss  silk  composed  of 
filaments  more  or  less  short,  obtained  by  carding,  and  unable  to 
produce,  when  twisted,  anything  better  than  floss,  that  is  to  say, 
refuse  silk.  It  is  to  the  Countess  de  Yernede  de  Corneillan  on  the 
one  hand,  and  to  Doctor  Forgemot  on  the  other,  that  the  merit  is 
due  of  having  obtained  an  unbroken  thread  of  silk  from  the  cocoon 
of  Attacus  Cynthia. 

A  monograph  on  the  Ailanthus  silkworm  appeared  in  1866  under 
the  title,  "  L'Ailante  et  son  Bombyx,  par  Henri  Givelet."  *  It  is 
a  complete  account  of  all  the  results  obtained  up  to  the  time, 
both  as  regards  the  rearing  of  the  silkworm  and  also  as  regards 
the  cultivation  on  a  large  scale  of  the  Ailanthus,  or  false  Japan 
varnish  tree.f 

The  Castor-oil  plant  silkworm  (Attacus  (Bombyx)  ricini)  is  a 
species  very  nearly  akin  to  the  Ailanthus  worm,  perhaps  only  a 
variety,  and  comes  from  India.  The  silk  which  it  produces  is 

*  In  8vo,  avec  plans  et  planches  coloriees.     Paris,  1866. 

t  A  work  by  M.  Ghierin-Meneville  on  the  same  subject,  entitled,  "  Education  des 
Vers  a  soie  de  1'Ailante  et  du  Eicin,"  in  12mo,  Paris,  1860,  may  also  be  consulted. 

[For  a  full  account  of  successful  experiments  carried  on  in  England,  see  Dr. 
Wallace's  Essay  in  "  The  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London," 
3rd  series,  vol.  v.  pt.  2.  Longmans  and  Co.— ED.] 


250 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


very  similar  in  every  respect  to  that  of  the  Cynthia.  The  rearing 
of  this  worm  could  never  attain  to  any  great  importance  in 
France,  on  account  of  the  necessity  there  is  of  renewing  the 
plantations  of  the  castor-oil  plant  each  year.  It  would,  however, 
afford  an  additional  source  of  income  to  the  farmers  in  the  south 
of  France,  who  cultivate  the  castor- oil  plant  with  a  view  to  sell- 
ing its  seeds,  which  are  much  used  in  pharmacy. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  genus  Attacus,  which  furnishes  us  with  all 
these  precious  auxiliaries  to  the  mulberry  silkworm,  are  a  great 
number  of  other  species,  both  indigenous  to  Europe,  and  exotic, 


Fig.  22tt.— Saturaia  pavonia-majur. 

mostly  remarkable  for  their  great  size,  and  a  few  of  which  are 
common  in  this  country. 

Fig.  229  is  the  largest  European  moth,  but  never  found  far- 
ther north  than  the  latitude  of  Paris.  Its  wings  are  brown, 
waved,  and  variegated  with  grey.  Each  of  them  has  a  large 
black  eye- shaped  spot,  surrounded  by  a  tawny  circle,  surmounted 
by  one  white  semicircle,  and  by  another  of  a  reddish  hue,  the 


LEPIDOPTEBA. 


251 


whole  completely  enclosed  in  a  black  circle.  "  These  moths/'  says 
Geoffrey,  "  are  very  large  ;  they  look  as  if  they  were  covered 
with  fur,  and,  when  they  fly,  one  is  inclined  to  take  them  for  birds." 
Saturnia  pavonia-major  comes  from  a  very  large  caterpillar, 
which  is  of  a  beautiful  green,  with  tubercules  of  turquoise 
blue,  each  of  which  is  surmounted  by  seven  stiff  divergent  hairs. 
This  caterpillar  lives  principally  upon  the  elm,  but  it  feeds  also 
upon  the  leaves  of  the  pear,  plum,  and  other  trees.  It  spins  a 


Fig.  230. — Emperor  Motli  (satur/iuicai'jjiHij. 

brown  cocoon,  formed  of  a  coarse  silk  of  great  strength.  It  is  not 
until  the  following  spring  that  it  becomes  a  moth. 

The  Emperor  Moth  (Saturnia  carpini,  Fig.  230)  much  resembles 
the  above,  except  in  size.  This  species  is  common  in  England,  and 
its  green  larva,  covered  with  black  or  pink  warts,  from  which  spring 
hairs  as  in  the  last,  is  by  no  means  rare  on  heath  in  the  autumn. 
It  also  feeds  on  bramble  and  other  plants. 

Among  the  Attaci  foreign  to  Europe,  we  must  mention  Atlas 
(Fig.  231),  the  expanse  of  whose  wings  exceeds  four  and  a 
quarter  inches.  This  magnificent  moth,  one  of  the  largest  known, 
comes  from  China. 

The  family  Bombytida  comprises  many  species  which  we  must 
not  omit  to  mention. 


252 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


The  Lackey  (Bombyx  neustria),  derives  its  name  from  the  colour 
of  the  caterpillar,  which  has  longitudinal  lines  of  various  colours 


Fig.  231.— Attacue  (Bombyx)  Atlas. 

and  a  blue  head.    These  caterpillars  live  together  on  a  great  number 
of  our  forest  and  garden  trees,  to  which  they  do  much  damage.  The 


Fig.  232. — The  Lackey  (Bombyx  neustria). 


moth  (Fig.  232)  has  a  brownish  body,  and  wings  of  a  more  or  less 
tawny  yellow  colour,  with  two  darker  lines  on  the  front  wings. 

The  Procession  Moth  (Bombyx  processioned),  is  a  small  greyish 
moth,  the  caterpillars  of  which  live  in  numerous  troops  on  oak 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  253 

trees,  and  devour  the  leaves  at  the  moment  of  their  development. 
In  the  evening  these  caterpillars  come  out  of  their  common  nest, 
and  form  a  sort  of  procession ;  hence  their  name  Procession  Moth. 
**  I  kept  some  for  a  little  time  in  my  house  in  the  country,"  says 
Reaumur.  "  I  brought  an  oak  branch  which  was  covered  with 
them  into  my  study,  where  I  could  much  better  follow  the  order 
and  regularity  of  their  march  than  I  could  have  done  in  the  woods. 
I  was  very  much  amused  and  pleased  at  watching  them  for  many 
days.  I  hung  the  branch  on  which  I  had  brought  them  against 
one  of  my  window  shutters.  When  the  leaves  were  dried  up, 
when  they  had  become  too  hard  for  the  teeth  of  the  caterpillars, 
they  tried  to  go  and  seek  better  food  elsewhere.  One  set  himself 
in  motion,  a  second  followed  at  his  tail,  a  third  followed  this  one, 
and  so  on.  They  began  to  defile  and  march  up  the  shutter,  but 
being  so  near  to  each  other  that  the  head  of  the  second  touched 
the  tail  of  the  first.  This  single  file  was  throughout  continuous  ; 
it  formed  a  perfect  string  of  caterpillars  of  about  two  feet  in  length, 
after  which  the  line  was  doubled.  There  two  caterpillars  marched 
abreast,  but  as  near  the  one  which  preceded  them  as  those  who 
were  marching  in  single  file  were  to  each  other.  After  a  few  rows 
of  our  processionists  who  were  two  abreast,  came  the  rows  of  three 
abreast ;  after  a  few  of  these  came  those  which  were  four  abreast ; 
then  there  were  rows  of  five,  others  of  six,  others  of  seven,  others 
of  eight  caterpillars.  This  troop,  so  well  marshalled,  was  led 
by  the  first.  Did  it  halt,  all  the  others  halted:  did  it  again 
begin  to  march,  all  the  others  set  themselves  in  motion,  and  fol- 
lowed it  with  the  greatest  precision.  .  .  .  That  which  went  on  in 
my  study  goes  on  every  day  in  the  woods  where  these  caterpillars 
live.  .  .  .  When  it  is  near  sunset  you  may  see  coming  out  of  any 
of  their  nests,  by  the  opening  which  is  at  its  top,  which  would 
hardly  afford  space  for  two  to  come  out  abreast,  one  caterpillar. 
As  soon  as  it  has  emerged  from  the  nest,  it  is  followed  by  many 
others  in  single  file  ;  when  it  has  got  about  two  feet  from  the  nest, 
it  makes  a  pause,  during  which  those  who  are  still  in  the  nest  con- 
tinue to  come  out ;  they  fall  into  their  ranks,  the  battalion  is 
formed ;  at  last  the  leader  sets  off  marching  again,  and  all  the 
others  follow  him.  That  which  goes  on  in  this  nest  passes  in  all 
the  neighbouring  nests  ;  all  are  evacuated  at  the  same  time." 


254  THE  INSECT  WOELT). 

One  part  of  Fig.  233  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  caterpillars 
on  coming  out  of  the  nest,  and  in  another  part  is  shown  a 
different  arrangement,  in  which  each  row  has  only  one  caterpillar 
less  than  the  one  which  preceded  it.  These  caterpillars  are  fur- 
nished with  long  hairs,  slightly  tufted,  which  come  off  with  the 


Fig.  2'M. — Larva;  of  the  Procession  Moth  {Boitdiyx processioned). 

greatest  ease,  and  which,  if  they  penetrate  into  the  skin,  cause 
violent  itching.  In  1865,  a  number  of  the  alleys  of  the  Bois  de 
Boulogne  were  shut  up  from  the  public,  in  order  to  save  them 
from  this  annoyance.  These  caterpillars  construct  a  covering* 
common  to  them  all,  in  which  they  live,  and  transform  them- 
selves therein,  each  insect  making  for  his  own  private  use  a  small 
cocoon.  This  insect  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  England,  but  there 
is  not  sufficient  evidence  to  admit  it  into  our  lists. 

The  Orgyias  comprise  a  great  number  of  small  species,  of  a 
dark  colour,  which  do  a  great  deal  of  damage  to  our  forest  trees. 
In  September  and  October  the  male  of  the  Orgyia  antiqua,  with 
his  tawny  wings,  may  often  be  seen  flying  about  the  streets  of 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


255 


London.     The  female  (Fig.  234)  is  remarkable,  as  she  has  only 
the  rudiments  of  wings,  and  only    goes    as   far    as   the   side   of 


Fig.  234. — The  Vupourer  Moth  (Urgyia  antiqua)  male  and  female. 

her  cocoon.       The   caterpillar  of  the    Orgyia  pudibunda,   called 
also   the  Hop-dog,    attacks   almost  every   sort  of  tree.      When 


Fig.  235.— Orgyia  pudilmnda. 

the  state  of  the  atmosphere  favours  their  propagation,  they  appear 
in  fearful  quantities,  and  cause  the  greatest  havoc.     During  the 


256 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


autumn  of  1828,  in  the  environs  of  Phalsbourg,  they  were  to  be 
counted  by  millions.  The  extent  of  the  woods  laid  waste  was 
calculated  at  about  fifteen  hundred  hectares.  It  is  common  in 
this  country. 

Among  the  genus  Liparis,  the  species  of  which  are  also  very 
destructive  to  trees,  we  must  mention  the  Brown-tailed  Moth 
(Liparis  chrysorrhcea,  Fig.  236),  a  species  by  no  means  rare  in 
England.  The  caterpillars  live  in  quantities,  on  apple,  pear,  and 
elm  trees,  and  destroy  the  plantations  of  the  promenades  of  Paris. 
The  females  of  this  genus  tear  off  the  fur  from  the  extremity  of 

their  abdomens  to  make  a  soft  bed  for 
their  eggs,  and  to  preserve  them  from 
the  cold.  And  yet  they  are  never  to 
see  their  young,  for  they  die  after  they 
have  laid  their  eggs.  Another  tribe 
of  Bombycina  contains  species  of  a 
small  size,  which  are  remarkable 
from  the  habits  of  caterpillars  which  make,  with  foreign  bodies, 
cases,  in  the  interior  of  which  they  live  and  undergo  their  meta- 
morphoses. 

The.  caterpillars  of  the  genus  Psyche,  live  in  a  case  composed  of 


Fig.  236. — Liparis  cln-ysoirhcea. 


Fig.  237.— Case  of  Psyche  muscella. 


Fig.  238.— Psyche  imiscella. 


Fig.  239.— Case  of  Psyche  nibicolelhi.  Fig.  240.— Case  of  Psyche  graminelln. 


-3WB^^^ 


Fig.  211.— Larva  of  Psyche  graminella.  Fig.  242.— Psyche  gramindla. 

fragments  of  leaves,  of  bits  of  grass  and  straw,  of  small  sticks, 


PLATE  VII. 


The  Goat-moth  (CosouM  ll(jni  perda}.    Larva,  pupa,  and  perfect  insect. 
1,  2.  Perfect  insect.     3.  Pupa.     4.  Larva. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  257 

of  wood,  or  of  little  stones,  stuck  together,  and  intermixed  with 
silky  threads. 

We  give  a  representation  (in  Figs.  237,  239,  and  240)  of  the 
cases  of  the  caterpillars  of  three  different  kinds.  The  females  of 
these  moths  are  completely  destitute  of  wings  and  resemble  cater- 
pillars. As  a  general  rule  they  hardly  ever  leave  their  case.  The 
males  (Figs.  238,  242)  are  of  a  blackish  grey  and  fly  very  swiftly. 

The  caterpillars  of  the  genus  Hepialus  are  difficult  to  observe, 
as  they  live  in  the  interior  of  the  roots  of  various  vegetables.  Such 
is  the  common  Ghost- moth  (Hepialus  humuli},  which  sometimes 
causes  the  greatest  damage. 

The  type  of  the  genus  Zeuzera  is  Zeuzera  cesculi,  or  Wood 
Leopard  (Fig.  243).  It  has  white  wings  with  large  blackish 


Fig.  243.— Zeuzera  sesculi. 

blue  spots  on  the  anterior,  and  small  black  spots  on  the  posterior 
wings.  The  caterpillar,  of  a  livid  yellow,  spotted  with  black, 
lives  in  the  interior  of  the  trunks  of  a  great  many  trees,  princi- 
pally the  chestnut,  the  elm,  the  lime,  and  the  pear  tree.  This 
moth,  which  is  known  also  by  the  name  of  coquette,  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  evening  flying  about  the  public  gardens  of  Paris,  and  is  not 
rare  in  England.  The  most  celebrated  species  of  the  allied  genus 
Cossus  is  the  Wood-boring  Goat-moth  (Cossus  ligniperda).  The 
moth  has  a  heavy  brownish  body  and  greyish  wings  streaked 
with  black=  It  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  The  cater- 
pillar o  af  reddish  colour,  as  if  it  had  on  a  leathern  jerkin, 
disgorges  a  liquid  which  is  believed  to  soften  ligneous  fibres,  and 


258 


THE  INSECT  WOELI). 


lives  in  the  interior  of  willows  and  other  trees.     It  was  on  this 
caterpillar  that  Lyonnet  made  his  admirable  anatomical  researches. 


Fig.  244. — Larva  of  Dicranura  vinula. 

Another  tribe  of  Bombyces  comprises  some  very  strange  cater- 
pillars, whose  hindermost  feet  are  changed  into  forked  pro 
longations,  which  they  move  about  in  a  threatening  manner. 
These  sort  of  fly-flaps  are  perhaps  meant  to  keep  at  a  distance 
those  insects  which  would  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  caterpillar's 
body.  The  caterpillars  of  Dicranuras  are  of  this  kind.  We  give  a 


Fig.  Ji45. — Dicranura  vinula. 


representation  of  the  caterpillar  and  the  moth  of  the  Puss -moth 
(Dicranura  vinula,  Figs.  244, 245),  as  also  the  moth  of  the  Dicranura 
verbasci,  the  former  of  which  is  common  in  England,  and  the  larva 


LEPLDOPTEKA. 


259 


may  be  found  during  the  late  summer  and  early  autumn  feeding 
on   poplars   and   willows;    and   of  the  caterpillar   of  Stauropus 


Fig.  246. — Dicranura  verbasci. 

y  the  Lobster-moth  (Fig.  247),  rare  in  this  country,    whose 


Fig.  247.— Larva  of  the  Lobster-moth  ( Stauropus  fagi)- 

appearance  is  strange  indeed.     The  moths,  on  the  contrary,  hare 
nothing  about  them  remarkable. 


Fig.  248. — Noctua  tegamon. 

The  Noctuina  are  a  group  of  Lepidoptera  of  middling  size,  and 

s2 


260 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


generally  found  in  woods,  meadows,  and  gardens,  where  their 
caterpillars  have  lived.  They  seldom  fly  till  about  sunset,  or 
during  the  night.  Their  upper  wings  are  of  a  dark  colour,  with 


Fig.  249.— Noctua  nebulosa. 

spots  in  the  middle  of  a  particular  shape.      Their  lower  wings  are 
of  various  colours,  often  whitish,  sometimes  red  or  yellow. 


Fig.  250.—  Noctua  nusiva. 


We  give  representations  of  some  of  the  species  of  this  group.* 
Noctua  tegamon,  Fig.  248  ;  Noctua  nebulosa,  Fig.  249  ;  Noctua 
nusiva,  Fig.  250  ;  Noctua  brunea,  Fig.  251  ;  Catocala  fraxini, 
Fig.  252  ;  Catocala  Americana,  Fig.  253;  Catocala  par  any  mp  ha, 

*  In  England  it  numbers  about  three  hundred  species.  The  larvae  are  of 
diverse  habits,  but  the  majority  feed  on  low  plants  ;  the  moths  are  provided  with 
a  trunk,  and  are  very  partial  to  sweets.—  ED. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


261 


Fig.   254 ;   Catocala  nupta,  Fig.  255,  the  Red  underwing ;  and 
Erebus  strix,  Fig.  256. 


Fig.  251.— Noctua  brunea. 

The  bodies  of  these  moths  are  robust  and  sometimes  massive,  and 
are  scaly  rather  than  woolly.  The  thorax  is  sometimes  bristling 
with  hairy  tufts. 

This  genus  includes  eight  hundred  species,  of  which  there  are 


Fig.  252.— Catocala  fraxini. 

about  three  hundred  in  France.  The  caterpillars  of  the  Noc- 
:uina  are  smooth  or  very  slightly  covered  with  hair,  usually 
of  a  pale  colour,  and  live  on  low  plants,  of  which  they  devour,  some 
the  leaves,  others  the  roots ;  then  it  is  they  are  most  destructive  to 


262 


THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 


agriculture.     There  are  some  of  them  which  eat  any  caterpillars 
they  may  chance  to  meet,  and  even  those  of  their  own  species, 


Fig.  253.— Catocala  Americana. 


leaving  nothing  but  the  skin.  Some  of  them  surround  them- 
selves with  a  light  cocoon  before  becoming  chrysalides,  others 
bury  themselves  in  soft  well-pulverised  soil. 


Fig.  254. — Catocala  paranympha. 

The  family  of  Geomelrince,  or  Geometers,  comprises  moths  of 
a  middling  size,  and  usually  flying  after  sunset  and  during 
the  night.*  They  frequent  the  alleys  of  damp  woods,  where 
they  become  the  prey  of  the  Libellulce  t  and  other  car- 

*  A  few  species  fly  in  bright  sunshine. — ED.  f  Dragon-flies. — ED. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


263 


Fig.  255. — Catocala  nupta. 


Fig.  256.— Erebus  strix. 


264 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


nivorous  insects.  Their  bodies  and  abdomens  are  slender,  their 
wings  large,  thin,  fragile,  often  of  a  dark  colour,  with  brilliant 
markings. 

The  caterpillars  of  the  Geometrince  are  known  by  the  name 
of  loopers  or  geometers.  We  have  described  their  singular 
organisation  above.  They  are  continually  spinning  a  silken  thread, 
which  keeps  them  attached  to  the  plant  on  which  they  live. 
If  you  touch  the  leaf  which  supports  them,  they  immediately  let 
themselves  fall. 

"  Nevertheless,  they  do  not  generally  fall  to  the  ground,"  says 
Reaumur ;  "  there  is  a  cord  ready  to  support  them  in  the  air 
(Fig.  257),  and  a  cord  which  they  can  lengthen  as  they  will ; 
this  cord  is  only  a  very  thin  thread,  but  has  nevertheless  strength 
enough  to  support  the  caterpillar  (Figs.  258,  259).  All  that 


Fig.  257.— Looper      Fig.  258.— Seen 
lumping  by  its  -at  the  side, 

thread. 


Fig.  259.— Front 


Figs.  260  and  261.— Remounting  its 
thread. 


there  seems  to  fear  is,  that  the  thread  may  lengthen  too  quickly 
and  the  caterpillar  fall,  rather  than  descend  gently  to  the 
ground.  But  what  we  must  first  remark  and  admire  is,  that 
the  caterpillar  is  mistress  of  its  movements,  and  is  not  obliged 


LEPIDOPTERA.  265 

to  descend  too  quickly ;  it  descends  by  stages,  it  stops  in  the  air 
when  it  pleases.  Generally  it  only  descends  at  most  about  one 
foot  at  a  time,  and  sometimes  only  half  a  foot  or  a  few  inches, 
after  which  it  makes  a  pause  more  or  less  long  as  it  pleases."  It 
is  in  this  way  that  the  caterpillars  let  themselves  fall  from  the 
top  of  the  highest  trees.  They  remount  again  with  no  less  ease. 

Let  us  listen  to  Reaumur's  description  of  the  means  employed 
by  this  caterpillar  to  descend  from  these  heights.  Figs.  260  and 
261,  drawn  as  the  three  preceding  ones  from  the  plates  in  Reau- 
mur's Memoir,  help  us  to  follow  the  explanation  given  by  the 
illustrious  naturalist  of  the  evolutions  of  our  little  acrobat: — 
"  To  remount/'  says  Reaumur,  "  the  caterpillar  seizes  the  thread 
between  its  jaws,  as  high  up  as  it  can  catch  it;  as  soon  as  it 
has  done  this  it  twists  its  head  round,  lays  it  over  on  one  side,  and 
continues  to  do  so  more  and  more  every  moment.  Its  head  seems 
to  descend  below  the  last  of  the  scaly  legs  which  are  on  the  same 
side  as  that  to  which  it  is  inclined.  The  truth  is,  however,  that 
it  is  not  its  head  which  descends,  the  part  of  the  thread  which  it 
holds  between  its  teeth  is  a  fixed  point  for  its  head  and  for  the 
rest  of  its  body  :  it  is  that  portion  of  the  back  corresponding  with 
its  scaly  legs  which  the  caterpillar  twists  upwards  ;  the  consequence 
is  that  it  is  the  scaly  legs  and  that  part  of  the  body  to  which  they 
belong  which  then  ascend.  When  the  last  pair  of  legs  are  just 
over  the  teeth  of  the  caterpillar,  one  of  its  legs,  viz.,  that  which 
is  on  the  side  towards  which  the  head  is  inclined,  seizes  the  thread 
and  brings  it  over  to  the  corresponding  leg  on  the  other  side, 
which  is  advanced  to  receive  it.  If  the  head  then  raises  itself, 
which  it  will  not  fail  to  do  immediately,  it  is  in  order  that  it  may 
seize  the  thread  at  a  higher  point  than  that  at  which  it  seized  it 
at  first,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  the  head,  and  consequently 
the  whole  body  of  the  caterpillar,  is  found  to  have  ascended  to  a 
height  equal  to  the  length  of  the  thread  which  is  between  the 
place  where  its  teeth  seized  it  the  first  time  and  that  where  they 
seized  it  the  second  time.  Here  then  is,  so  to  say,  its  first  step  up- 
wards. Hardly  has  the  caterpillar  taken  this  than  it  takes  a  second. 
.  .  .  If  you  were  to  seize  the  caterpillar  when  it  had  arrived  at 
the  end  of  its  upward  journey,  you  would  see  a  packet  of  threads- 
huddled  together  between  the  four  hindmost  of  the  scaly  legs. 


266 


THE  INSECT  WOULD. 


This  packet  is  more  or  less  large  according  as  the  height  ascended 
by  the  caterpillar  is  greater  or  less.  All  the  turns  of  the  thread 
which  compose  it  are  entangled.  So  the  caterpillar  does  not  con- 
sider it  of  any  value ;  as  soon  as  it  can  walk,  it  gets  rid  of  it,  sets 
its  legs  free,  and  leaves  it  behind  before  it  has  taken  one  or  at 
most  two  steps.  Each  time,  then,  costs  it  the  cord  it  made  use 
of  to  effect  its  ascent,  but  this  is  an  expense  it  can  always  be  at 
whenever  it  likes ;  it  has  in  itself  the  source  of  the  matter  necessary 

for  the  composition  of  the  thread, 
and  it  is  a  source  in  which  that 
which  was  drawn  off  is  being  con- 
tinually re-supplied.  Moreover, 
spinning  the  thread  costs  the 
caterpillars  little;  indeed,  the 
loopers  economise  this  thread  so 
little  that  most  of  them  leave  it 
behind  them  wherever  they  go." 
They  are  found  on  many  trees, 
but  particularly  on  the  oak,  whose 
foliage  they  often  entirely  devour. 
They  burrow  into  the  ground  to  change  into  chrysalides,  and 
undergo  all  their  metamorphoses  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Others 
do  not  become  perfect  insects  till  the  autumn,  or  sometimes  not  even 
till  the  following  spring.  A  few  assume  the  perfect  state  in  winter. 
There  are,  indeed,  some  of  these,  such  as  the  males  of  the  Hyber- 
niaSj  which  fly  about  on  the  foggy  evenings  of  November.  The 
females  of  this  genus  have  either  no  wings  at  all,  or  else  only 
rudimentary  ones.  Two  species,  the  Hybernia  defoliaria,  or  Winter 


Fig.  262.— Hybernia  leucophearia,  male. 


Fij?.  263.— Winter  Moth  (Hybtrnia 
df/oliaria),  male. 


.  264.— Winter  Moth  (Hybernia 
defoliaria),  female. 


moth,   and   the   Cheimatobia   brumata,  abundant   here,    are   very 
common  in  the  environs  of  Paris. 


LEPIDOPTEKA. 


267 


M.  Maurice  Girard  says,  in  his  work  on  the  Metamorphoses  of 
Insects,  that  the  females  of  these  moths  can  easily  be  found  at  the 


Fig.  265.— Cheimatobia  brumata,  male. 


Fig.  266  —Cheimatobia 
brumata,  female. 


beginning  of  November,  in  a  very  strange  place,  namely,  on  the 
gas  lamps  of  the  public  promenades  ;  for  instance,  along  the  roads 
in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne.  No  doubt  they  had  climbed  up  to  this 
height,  attracted  by  the  light,  or  perhaps  had  been  carried  thither 
by  the  males,  which  fly,  having  wings. 

In  February  and  March  appear  other  analogous  species.  "  One 
finds,"  says  M.  Maurice  Girard,  "  near  Paris,  in  the  meadows  which 
surround  the  confluence  of  the  Seine  and  the  Marne,  at  the  end  of 


Fig.  267.— Nyssia  zonaria,  male  and  female. 

the  month  of  March,  the  Nyssia  zonaria  (Fig.  267),  the  males  of 
which  insect  remain  during  the  day  motionless  on  the  grass."  * 

There  are  some  species  of  this  family  in  which  the  wings  of  the 
females  are  developed  like  those  of  the  males,  f  Such  are  the 
Peppere  moth  (Amphidasis  betularia)  and  the  Currant  moth 

*  With  us  this  insect  has  a  very  limited  range,  being  only  found  at  New  Brighton, 
near  Birkenhead,  where  it  is  most  abundant. — ED. 

f  The  exception  is  with  those  in  which  the  wings  are  not  developed  in  both  cases, 
and  ia  England  this  peculiarity  is  confined  to  species  appearing  during  the  winter 
and  early  spring. — ED. 


268 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


(Abraxas  grossulariata) ,  whose  caterpillar  lives  on  the  red  currant 
and  gooseberry,  and  an  immense  number  known  as  Thorns,  Car- 
pets, Waves,  &c. 

The  section  of  the  Pyralina  contains  the  smallest  nocturnal 
Lepidoptera,  and  nearly  all  those  tiny  species  which  flutter  round 
our  lights  in  the  evening. 

Here  are  some  drawings  of  a  few  of  the  numerous  species  of  this 
section,  remarkable  for  their  small  size  and  beauty : — Penthina 


Fig.  268.— Penthina  pruniana. 


vrunlana,  ^Edia  pusiella,  Xylopodafabriciana,  Poedisca  autumnana, 
Tortrix  roborana,  Philobacera  fagana,  Tortrix  sorbiana,  Antithesia 


Fig.  269.— yEdia  pusiella. 


Fig.  270. — Xylopoda  fabriciana. 


salicana,  Pcedisca  occultana,  Argyrolepia  ceneana,  Sericoris  Zinhe- 
nana,  Sarrothripa  revayana,  Cochylis  fmncilana,  Choreutes  dolo- 
sana  (Figs.  268  to  281).* 

*  Many  of  these  are  placed  by  some  authors  among  the  Pyralina,  and  by  others 
among  the  Tortricina. — Er>. 


LEPIDOPTEBA. 


269 


In  a  book  of  this  kind  we  can  only  mention  some  types  among 
these  last  insects,  which  claim  our  attention  in  what  we  might 
almost  call  a  tyrannical  manner.  "We  will,  therefore,  content 
ourselves  by  saying  a  few  words  about  the  Green  Tortrix,  the 


Fig.  271. — Poedtsca  autumnana. 


Fig.  272.— Tortrix  roboraiia. 


Pyralis  of  the  Vine,  the  Bee-hive  moth,  some    species  of  the 
Clothes  moth  family  (Teneina),  and  finally  of  the  (Ecophorce. 

The  Green  Tortrix  (Tortrix  viridana)  has  wings  of  a  green 
colour,  with  the  margin  and  fringe  whitish  on  the  anterior,  and  of 


Fig.  273.-  Philobacera  fagana.  Fig.  274.— Tortrix  sorbiana, 

an  ashy  grey  on  the  posterior  wings.  The  under-side  of  the  four 
wings  is  of  a  bright  white,  as  if  it  had  been  silvered.  This 
pretty  moth  comes  out  in  the  month  of  May.  It  is  so  common 
everywhere,  that  at  this  season  it  is  only  necessary  to  shake 
the  branches  of  the  oaks  which  border  the  alleys  of  the 
woods  to  set  in  motion  hundreds  of  them.  The  caterpillar  is 


270 


THE  INSECT  WOULD. 


green,  with  black  warty  spots,  each  having  a  hair  of  the  same 
colour.  They  are  wonderfully  lively,  the  moment  they  are  dis- 
turbed taking  refuge  in  a  rolled  leaf,  which  serves  them  as  a 
dwelling  place.  If  they  are  pursued,  they  let  themselves  fall  by 


Fig.  275.— Antitliesia  salicana. 


Fig.  276.  -  Poedisca  occultana. 


Fig.  277.— Argyrolepia 


the  aid  of  a  thread,  and  do  not  re-ascend  till  they  think  they 
can  count  on  repose  and  security.  This,  and  many  kindred  species, 
do  a  great  deal  of  damage  to  our  trees.  They  strip  them  of 
their  leaves,  and  sometimes  give  them,  during  the  first  days  of 


Fig.  278. — Sericoris  Zinkenana.  Fig,  279. — Sarrothripa  revaj'ana. 

summer,  the  sad  and  melancholy  appearance  which  they  present 
in  the  middle  of  winter. 

"We  have  just  alluded   to  the  tube  formed  of  a  rolled  leaf,  in 
which  the  caterpillar  takes  refuge,  and  in  which  it  lives.     This 


Fig.  280. — Cochylis  francilana. 


Fig.  281.— Choreutes  dolosana. 


tube  it  constructs  itself.  Reaumur  has  devoted  a  magnificent 
chapter  of  his  Memoirs  to  observations  on  the  skill  with  which 
divers  species  of  caterpillars  fold,  roll,  and  bind  the  leaves  of 
plants  and  trees,  especially  those  of  the  oak.  Let  us  listen  to 
the  great  observer : — "  If  one  looks  attentively  at  the  leaves  of  the 
oak-tree  towards  the  middle  of  the  spring,  many  of  them  will  be 
seen  to  be  rolled  in  different  ways.  The  exterior  surface  of  the 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


271 


end  of  one  of  these  leaves  has,  it  appears,  been  rolled  back  towards 
the  interior  surface,  in  order  to  describe  the  first  turn  of  a  spiral, 
which  is  then  covered  by  many  other  turns  (Fig.  282).  Some 


Fig.  282.— Oak  leaf  rolled  perpendicularly.  Fig.  283.— Oak  leaf  rolled  sideways 

leaves  are  rolled  towards  their  exterior  surface,  others  are  rolled 
towards  their  interior  surfaces,  but  in  a  totally  different  direction. 
The  length  or  axis  of  the  first  roll  is  perpendicular  to  the  principal 
rib  and  to  the  stalk  of  the  leaf,  the  axis  of  the  latter  parallel  to  the 
same  rib  (Fig.  283).  Work  of  this  kind  would  not  be  very  difficult 
to  perform  for  those  who  had  fingers  ;  but  caterpillars  have  neither 
fingers  nor  anything  equivalent  to  fingers.  Moreover,  to  have 
rolled  the  leaves  is  only  to  have  done  half  the  work  :  they  must  be 
retained  in  a  position  from  which  their  natural  spring  tends  con- 
stantly to  draw  them.  The  mechanism  to  which  the  caterpillars 
have  recourse  for  this  second  part  of  their  work  is  easily  perceived. 
We  see  packets  of  threads  attached  by  one  end  to  the  surface  of 
the  roll,  and  by  the  other  to  the  flat  surface  of  the  leaf.  They  are 
so  many  bands,  so  many  little  cords  which  hold  out  against  the 
spring  of  the  leaf.  There  are  sometimes  more  than  from  ten  to 
twelve  of  these  bands  arranged  nearly  in  the  self- same  straight 
line.  Each  band  is  a  packet  of  threads  of  white  silk,  pressed  one 
against  the  other,  and  yet  we  must  remember  all  are  separate."* 

Reaumur  made  the  oak-leaf  rollers  work  in  his  house.     He  has 
*  Me'moires  pour  servir  a  1'histoire  des  Insectes,  tome  ii.,  page  210  (5e  Mcmoire). 


272  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

admirably  described  all  their  little  manoeuvres ;  but  we  lack  the 
space  to  convey  to  the  reader  the  result  of  his  minute  observations. 
In  fact,  the  leaf-rollers  construct  for  themselves  a  sort  of  cylin- 
drical cell,  which  receives  light  only  through  the  two  extremities. 
The  convenience  of  this  green  fresh  habitation  is,  that  its  walls 
furnish  food  to  the  animal  which  inhabits  it.  The  caterpillar,  thus 
sheltered,  sets  to  work  to  gnaw  away  at  the  end  of  the  leaf  which 
it  rolled  first ;  it  then  eats  all  the  rolls  it  has  made,  up  to  the 
very  last. 

Reaumur  found  also  rolls  which  had  been  formed  of  two  or  three 
leaves  rolled  lengthwise,  and  he  saw  that  the  leaves  which  had 
occupied  the  centre  had  been  almost  entirely  eaten.  He  saw  also 


Fig.  284. — Leaf  of  sorrel,  a  portion  of  which  is  cut  and  rolled  perpendicularly  to  the  leaf. 

caterpillars  which  continued  to  eat  while  they  were  making  their 
habitation.  Let  us  add  that  one  of  the  ends  of  the  roll  is  the  opening 
through  which  the  caterpillar  casts  its  excrement ;  that  the  cater- 
pillar can  prepare  itself  a  fresh  roll,  if  it  is  turned  out  of  the  first ; 
and,  lastly,  that  it  is  in  a  rolled  leaf  that  the  caterpillar  undergoes 
its  metamorphoses  into  a  chrysalis  and  into  a  moth. 

Reaumur  studied  other  leaf- rollers ;  for  instance,  those  which 
roll  the  leaves  of  nettles  and  of  sorrel.  This  last  one  works  in  a 
manner  which  deserves  to  be  mentioned.  Its  roll  is  of  no  particular 
shape,  but  it  is  its  position  which  is  remarkable.  It  is  set  upon  the 
leaf  like  a  ninepin  (Fig.  284).  The  caterpillar  has  not  only  to 
twist  it  up  into  a  roll,  but  also  to  place  it  perpendicularly  on  the 
leaf. 

Next  to  the  rolling  caterpillars,  let  us  mention  those  which  are 
contented  with  folding  the  leaves.  These  caterpillars  then  lie  in  a 
sort  of  flat  box.  Besides  the  rolling  and  folding  caterpillars,  there 
are  still  those  which  bind  up  a  good  many  leaves  in  one  packet. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


273 


These  packets  are  to  be  found  on  nearly  every  tree  and  shrub,  and 
the  caterpillar,  lying  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  packet,  is  well 
sheltered,  and  surrounded  by  a  good  supply  of  food.  We  will 
content  ourselves  by  giving  a  drawing,  after  Reaumur,  of  the 


Figs.  285  and  286.— Willow  leaves  rolled  by  a  caterpillar,  and  Section  of  a  bundle  of  leaves  drawn 
together  by  a  caterpillar. 

pretty  arrangement  of  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  willow  (Figs.  285, 
286).  In  the  figures  we  see  the  parcel  bound  together  by  the 
caterpillar.  In  that  to  the  right  we  see  the  transverse  section 
of  the  packet  of  leaves  magnified.  At  the  two  edges  are  seen  the 
threads  which  keep  these  leaves  together,  and  the  cavity  occupied 
by  the  caterpillar. 

The  Vine  Pyralis  is  produced  from  a  leaf-rolling  caterpillar, 
which  deserves  our  attention  on  account  of  the  ravages  which  it 
has  for  some  time  committed,  and  which  it  still  commits  in  vine- 

T 


274  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

yards.  It  was  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  that  this 
pyralis  first  showed  itself  in  the  environs  of  Paris,  in  the  territory 
of  Argenteuil.  "The  inhabitants  of  this  commune,"  writes  the 
Abbe"  Leboauf,  "  looked  on  the  insects  which  spoiled  their  vines 
in  the  spring  of  1562  as  a  visitation  of  God.  The  Bishop  of 
Paris  gave  orders  that  they  should  offer  up  public  prayers  for 
the  diminution  of  these  insects,  and  that  they  should  join  to  their 
prayers,  exorcisms,  without  leaving  the  church."  Prayers,  pro- 
cessions, exorcisms,  were  again  had  recourse  to,  in  1629,  in  1717, 
and  in  1733,  to  stop  the  ravages  of  this  insect  among  the  vines  of 
Colombes,  in  the  territory  of  Ai. 

The  country  of  the  Maconnais  and  the  Beaujolais  became  in 
their  turn  the  theatre  of  the  ravages  of  the  pyralis.  These 
ravages  very  soon  increased  and  spread.  In  1836,  1837,  1838, 
this  plague  raged  in  the  departments  of  the  Saone  et  Loire,  of 
the  Rhone,  of  the  C6te-d'0r,  of  the  Marne,  of  the  Seine  et  Oise, 
of  the  Charente  Inferieure,  of  the  Haut-Garonne,  of  the  Pyrene*es- 
Orientales,  and  of  the  H^rault. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  losses  which  may  be  occasioned  by  the 
pyralis,  in  a  period  of  ten  years  (1828-1837),  twenty- three  com- 
munes comprised  in  the  two  departments  of  the  Saone  et  Loire 
and  of  the  Rhone  lost  seventy-five  thousand  hectolitres  of  wine  a 
year,  which  may  be  valued  at  one  million  five  hundred  thousand 
francs.  If  we  were  to  calculate  the  supply  of  articles  of  all  sorts 
which  this  great  number  of  casks  of  wine  would  have  necessitated, 
the  imposts  on  their  transport,  the  duty,  the  taxes  levied  on  their 
sale,  the  carriage  by  land  and  water,  which  would  have  brought 
receipts  into  the  treasury,  and  lastly  the  diminution  of  taxes  which 
had  to  be  granted  for  seven  years  to  the  vine  proprietors  in  the 
department  of  the  Saone  et  Loire,  and  in  1837  in  the  department 
of  the  Rhone,  and  which  amounted  to  a  total  of  more  than  a  hun- 
dred thousand  francs,  we  shall  find  that  the  ravages  of  the  pyralis 
caused  in  these  two  departments  an  annual  loss  of  three  millions 
four  hundred  and  eight  thousand  francs,  and  as  the  visitation 
lasted  ten  years,  we  get  the  enormous  sum  total  of  thirty-four 
millions  destroyed  by  the  ravages  of  one  species  of  insect.  The 
moth  of  the  pyralis  (Fig.  287)  shows  itself  from  the  10th  to  the 
20th  of  June.  It  is  yellowish,  more  or  less  shot  with  gold. 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


275 


When  at  rest,  its  wings  are  folded  back  one  over  the  other  like 
a  roof.  Its  flight  is  of  short  duration,  contenting  itself  with 
going  from  one  vine  stock  to  another. 

It  is  at  sunset  mostly  that  you  see  the  moths  of  the  pyralis 
fluttering  about.     They  remain  quiet  during  the  day,  particularly 


Fig.  287. — The  Vine  Pyralis. 


Fig.  288. -Caterpillar  of  the  Vine 
Pyralis. 


when  the  sun  is  at  its  hottest.  They  live  on  an  average  for  ten 
days.  The  females  lay  their  eggs — which  are  at  first  green,  then 
yellowish,  then  brown — on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves. 

The  caterpillar  of  the   pyralis  (Fig.  288)  is  called  in  vulgar 
parlance,  according  to  the  different  places  it  is  met   with,    vine 
worm,  summer  worm,  vintage  worm,  shell.    In  the  south  of  France 
it  is  called  in  the  patois  of  Languedoc,  babota.    Almost  immediately 
after  they  leave  the  eggs,  the  little  caterpillars  hide  themselves  in 
the  fissures  of  the  vine  stocks  or  the  props  which  support  them. 
They   spin    for    themselves    a    small 
cocoon   of   a   greyish   silk,   in   which 
they  remain  curled  up  till  the  month 
of  May.     From  the  moment  the  leaves 
begin  to  develop  they  throw  out  threads, 
here   and   there,    entangling    all    the  Fig-  289.-chrysaiis  of  the  vine  Pyralis. 
young  shoots  of  the  vine,  which  gives  a  desolate  appearance  to 
the  vineyards.     The  leaves  of  the  vine  are  their  favourite  food, 
but  they  attack  the  seeds  of  the  grape  also.     It  is  said  that  in 

T2 


276  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

the  morning  you  can  hear  the  noise  made  by  the  caterpillars 
while  eating.  As  they  increase  in  size  every  day,  the  damage 
they  do  goes  on  increasing,  and  has  not  reached  the  maximum 


Fig.  290. —The  Vine  Pyralis  in  its  three  states.  1.  Leaf  with  batches  of  eggs  laid  upon  it. 
2.  Batches  of  recently  laid  eggs.  3.  Eggs  in  which  caterpillars  can  be  perceived.  4.  Batch 
of  epgs  from  which  the  caterpillars  have  already  emerged.  5.  Small  caterpillars  hanging 
by  threads.  6.  Leaf  with  the  chrysalis.  7.  Caterpillar.  8.  Moth. 

of  intensity  till  the  moment  when  the  caterpillars  are  about  to 
change  into  chrysalides.  They  are  then  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
long  and  of  a  yellowish  green  colour. 

From  the  20th  of  June  to  the  10th  of  July,  they  seek  shelter 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  277 

in  the  dry  and  interlaced  leaves  which  have  already  served  them 
for  places  of  refuge  and  partly  also  for  food,  or  else  they  make 
themselves  a  fresh  nest. 

At  the  end  of  two  or  three  days,  the  caterpillar  has  become  a 
chrysalis  (Fig.  289),  which  in  a  short  time  assumes  a  brown 
colour.  Shut  up  in  the  interior  of  the  cocoon  which  the  cater- 
pillar had  spun  before  undergoing  its  metamorphosis,  this  changes 
into  a  moth  at  the  end  of  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  days. 

The  best  way  to  diminish  the  ravages  of  the  pyralis  is  to  pluck 
off  the  leaves  which  are  laden  with  eggs  and  burn  them,  or  bury 
them  in  deep  holes. 

Fig.  290,  which  we  devote  to  the  conspicuous  insect  whose 
destructive  history  we  have  been  here  able  to  sketch  only  slightly, 
gives  all  the  particulars  relating  to  this  dangerous  guest  of  the 
vineyards.  On  a  branch  of  the  vine,  may  be  perceived  the  pyralis 
in  the  caterpillar  state,  the  eggs  which  have  been  laid  by  the 
moths,  the  chrysalides,  and  perfect  insects.  The  eggs  are  shown 
at  two  periods  of  their  development. 

The  Bee-hive  or  Wax  Galleria  is  to  be  met  with  in  all  countries 
where  bees  are  reared. 

The  moth  (Fig.  291)  hides  itself 
during  the  day  round  about  the  bee- 
hives, and  endeavours  to  make  its  way 
into  them  after  sunset.  The  caterpillar 
is  of  a  dirty  white,  with  brown  warty 
spots,  each  surmounted  by  a  fine  hair. 

It     lives     On     Wax,      twines     its      threads  Fi«.  291.-Galleria  cerella. 

round  the  honey  comb  and  very  soon  causes  the  larvae  contained 
in  it  to  perish. 

When  it  emerges  from  the  egg,  which  the  female  has  laid  in 
the  honey  comb,  the  caterpillar  makes  for  itself  with  the  wax  a 
rounded  tube,  in  which  it  is  safe  against  the  stings  of  the  bees. 
This  tube,  at  first  very  small,  lengthens  and  enlarges  as  the 
caterpillar  increases  in  size.  It  is  generally  from  three  to  five 
inches  in  length.  It  is  in  the  interior  of  this  that  the  caterpillar 
constructs  itself  a  hard  cocoon,  representing  leather,  and  it  changes 
into  a  brownish  chrysalis. 

A  species  of  the  genus  Butalis,  the  Butalis  or  Alwita  granella> 


278  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

is,  in  certain  cantons  of  France,  one  of  the  greatest  pests  to  agri- 
culture. The  caterpillar  of  the  Alucita  granella  undergoes  its 
metamorphosis  in  the  interior  of  grains  of  barley  and  of  wheat, 
which  it  devours  without  being  perceived  from  without.  The 
female  lays  her  eggs  on  the  grains  of  corn  before 
they  are  ripe.  From  four  to  six  days  after,  the 
eggs  are  hatched,  and  the  young  caterpillars  are 
Fig.  292.— Aiucita  hardly  as  thick  as  a  hair.  Each  one  takes  pos- 
session of  a  grain  of  corn,  and  penetrates  into 
it  by  an  imperceptible  opening.  They  eat  the  flour  without 
injuring  the  teguments  of  the  grain. 

When  it  has  attained  its  full  size  it  spins  itself  a  cocoon  of 
white  silk  in  the  interior  of  the  grain,  which,  after  having  been 
its  lodging  and  its  larder,  becomes  for  some  time  its  tomb.  It 
has,  however,  taken  care  beforehand  to  make  at  the  extremity  of 
the  grain  a  circular  opening,  through  which  the  moth  may  come 
out  when  the  grains  have  been  threshed  and  stored  up  in  the 
granary. 

It  is  important  to  mention  the  Tineina,  not  because  these 
little  moths  are  beautiful — they  are,  on  the  contrary,  very  dingy 
— but  because  it  is  in  this  group  that  are  found  those  insects 
which  do  the  greatest  damage  to  our  crops.  The  moths  of  the 
genus  Tineina  are  very  small.  Their  wings,  which  are  greyish 
or  brownish,  are  generally  marked  with  whitish  and  yellowish 
spots  or  lines.  These  are  the  little  moths  which,  in  our  houses, 
burn  themselves  so  frequently  in  the  flames  of  the  candles. 

Their  caterpillars  are  small,  voracious,  and  deserve,  on  account 
of  the  damage  which  they  cause,  to  be  compared  to  rats  and 
mice.  Furnished  with  powerful  jaws,  they  destroy  everything  they 
find  in  their  way,  such  as  woollen  stuffs,  hair,  furs,  feathers, 
grain,  &c. 

The  fineina  are  divisible  into  three  groups :  1st,  the  species 
hurtful  to  our  stuffs  and  furs ;  2ndly,  the  species  which  destroy 
our  corn  crops ;  3rdly,  the  phytophagous  species,  that  is  to  say, 
those  which  feed  on  plants. 

In  the  first  sub-division  must  be  classed  the  Fur  moth,  the 
Woollen  moth,  and  the  Hair  moth. 

The  Woollen  moth  is  represented  in  the  following  figure.     Its 


LEPIDOPTEEA.  279 

caterpillar  has  the  form  of  a  worm,  and  is  of  a  glossy  whiteness> 

with   a   few    hairs  thinly  sprinkled  over  it  and  a  grey  line  on 

its  back.     It  is  enclosed  in  a  tube,  or  sheath, 

open  at  both  ends,   in  the  interior  of  which 

is  a  sort  of  tissue    of    wool,  sometimes  blue, 

sometimes  green,  sometimes  red,  according  to 

the  colour  of  the   stuff  to   which   the   insect  Fig.  293.— The  wooiien  Moth 

attaches  itself  and  which   it    despoils.       The       (Tinea  tapezetla)' 

exterior  of  this  sheath  is,  on  the  contrary,  formed  of  silk  made 

by  the  insect  itself,  of  a  whitish  colour. 

The  caterpillars  are  hardly  hatched  before  they  begin  to  clothe 
themselves.  Reaumur  observed  one  of  these  worms  during  the 
operation  of  enlarging  its  case.  To  do  this  it  put  its  head  out  of 


Fig.  294.— Larvae  of  the  Woollen  Moth  (Tinea  tapezdla) 

one  of  the  extremities  of  its  sheath,  and  looked  about  eagerly,  to 
the  right  and  to  the  left,  for  those  bits  of  wool  which  suited  it 
best  for  weaving  in.  In  Fig.  294,  we  see  two  larvae  occupied  in 
eating  a  piece  of  cloth. 

"  The  larva  changes  its  place  continually  and  very  quickly," 
says  Reaumur.  "  If  the  threads  of  wool  which  are  near  it  are  not 
such  as  it  desires,  it  draws  sometimes  more  than  half  its  body 
out  of  its  case  to  go  and  look  for  better  ones  further  off.  If  it 
finds  a  bit  that  pleases,  the  head  remains  fixed  for  an  instant ;  it 
then  seizes  the  thread  with  the  two  mandibles  which  are  below  its 
head,  tears  the  bit  out  after  redoubled  efforts,  and  immediately 


280  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

carries  it  to  the  end  of  the  tube,  against  which  it  attaches  it.  It 
repeats  many  times  in  succession  a  similar  manoeuvre,  sometimes 
coming  partly  out  of  its  tube,  and  then  again  re-entering  it  to  fix 
against  one  of  its  sides  a  new  piece  of  wool." 

After  having  worked  for  about  a  minute  at  one  end  of  its  tube, 
it  thinks  of  lengthening  the  other.  It  turns  itself  round  in  its 
tube  with  such  quickness,  that  you  would  imagine  it  could  not 
have  had  time  to  do  so,  and  would  think  that  its  tail  was  formed 
in  the  same  way  as  its  head,  and  possessed  the  same  address  in 
choosing  and  tearing  out  the  bits  of  wool. 

Furthermore,  when  the  moth 
which  is  working  at  elongating  its 
case  does  not  find  the  threads  or 
hairs  of  wool  to  its  taste  within 

Fig.  295.-La™  of  a  Tinema  walking.        ^^    Q{   ^    j^    ^    cbmges     its 

place.  Re'aumur  saw  this  insect  walking,  at  some  speed  even,  carry- 
ing with  it  its  case.  It  walks  on  its  six  front  legs  (Fig.  295). 
With  the  middle  and  hind  legs  it  clings  to  the  interior  of  its  case. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  larva  becomes  longer  it  becomes 
stouter.  Yery  soon  its  garment  will  be  too  narrow  for  it.  Will 
it  cast  off  its  old  coat,  or  will  it  make  itself  a  new  one  ?  Eeaumur 
discovered  that  it  preferred  to  widen  its  old  coat. 

This  is  what  our  naturalist  saw  when  he  placed  larvae  with  blue 
cases,  for  instance,  upon  stuff  of  a  red  colour.  The  bands,  which 
extended  in  straight  lines  from  one  end  of  the  case  to  the  other, 
showed  the  part  that  had  been  added. 

"From  watching  them  at  different  times,"  says  this  admirable 
observer,  "  I  find  that  the  means  which  they  employ  is  precisely 
that  to  which  we  should  have  had  recourse  in  a  similar  case.  We 
know  of  no  other  way  of  widening  a  sheath,  a  case  of  any  stuff  that 
we  find  too  narrow,  than  to  split  it  right  up  and  to  let  in  a  piece 
of  the  proper  size  between  the  parts  which  we  have  thus  divided  ; 
we  should  let  in  a  piece  on  each  side  if  the  shape  of  the  tube  seemed 
to  require  it.  This  is  also  exactly  what  our  larvae  do,  with  an 
extra,  and  which  with  them  is  a  necessary,  precaution,  so  as  not  to 
remain  exposed  whilst  they  are  working  at  the  enlargement  of 
their  garment.  Instead  of  two  pieces,  which  should  each  be  as  long 
as  their  case,  they  let  in  four,  each  of  which  is  not  longer  than  half 


LEPIDOPTERA.  281 

the  length  of  their  case ;  and  so  they  never  split  up  more  than 
half  the  length  of  the  case  at  the  same  time,  which  has  enough 
stuff  left  in  it  to  keep  it  together  while  this  opening  is  being 
filled  up." 

The  wools  of  our  stuffs  furnish  the  moths  not  only  with  clothing, 
but  also  with  food.  Their  excrements  are  little  grains,  which  are 
the  same  colour  as  the  wool  they  have  eaten. 

When  they  are  full  grown,  and  the  time  approaches  for  their 
metamorphosis,  the  larvae  abandon  their  food,  and  establish  them- 
selves in  the  angles  of  the  walls.  They  creep  up  to  the  ceilings 
and  suspend  themselves  to  them  by  one  extremity  of  their  tube. 
The  two  ends  of  the  tube  are  now  closed  by  a 
silken  tissue  (Fig.  296).  The  larva  thus  enclosed 
very  soon  changes  its  form ;  it  becomes  a  chry- 
salis ;  then  at  the  end  of  about  three  weeks  it  is 
set  free  as  a  moth. 

The  Fur  or  Skin  moth  works  like   the   carpet 
moth ;  it  makes  itself  a  case  of  the  same  form,  and    Fig.  296.-case  of  the 

_^    1       .        ,  .     Moth  attached  to  a  piece 

constructs  it  in  the  same  manner.     Only  in  this  of  cioth. 

case  its  covering  is  made  of  a  sort  of  felt  resembling  that  of 
which  our  hats  are  made. 

While  the  Carpet  moth  only  detaches  from  the  various  stuffs 
the  wool  it  requires  for  clothing  and  nourishment,  the  Fur  moth 
causes  much  more  considerable  and  more  rapid  damage.  It  cuts 
off  all  the  hairs  which  are  in  its  way  right  down  to  the  skin ;  it 
seems  as  if  it  took  a  delight  in  cutting  them  off.  That  which  is 
necessary  for  its  wants  is  nothing  in  comparison  to  the  great  quan- 
tities of  hair  one  sees  fall  off  a  skin  on  which  it  has  established 
itself,  when  it  is  shaken.  As  it  advances  it  cuts  more  thoroughly 
than  a  razor  could  all  the  hairs  which  are  in  its  way.  t  , 

The  Hair  moth  (Fig.  297),  shows  itself  in  great     

numbers  in  the  perfect  state,  from  the  end  of  April 

till  the  beginning  of  June.     They  appear  again  in  Fis-  297.-Hair  Moth 

September,  and  generally  stay  behind  cabinets  and  other  pieces  of 

furniture. 

The  caterpillar,  which  is  cylindrical,  white,  destitute  of  hair, 
and  striped  with  brown,  lives  principally  in  the  hair  with 
which  furniture  is  stuffed,  and  sometimes  in  hair  mattresses. 


282  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

When  it  has  reached  its  full  size,  it  abandons  its  abode,  pierces 
through  the  stuff  which  covers  the  hair,  and  constructs  for  itself 
with  this  stuff  a  case  of  silk,  open  only  towards  the  end  where  its 
head  is.  At  the  beginning  of  April  it  shuts  its  case,  and  changes 
itself  into  a  chrysalis. 

We  can  only  here  mention  some  of  the  phytophagous  species,  as 
the  Cherry-tree  moth  (Tinea  cerasiella),  the  Hawthorn  moth 
( Tinea  cratcegella),  the  Burdock  moth  ( Tinea  lapella),a,nd.  the  Rustic 
moth  ( Tinea  rusticella). 

The  caterpillars  of  the  CEcophorce  resemble  whitish  worms. 
They  attack  the  leaves,  the  blossoms,  the  bark,  and  certain  parts 
of  the  fruit  of  trees.  Some  of  these  hollow  out  for  themselves 
galleries  in  eating  the  fleshy  part ;  others  also  make  galleries,  but 
only  in  the  cuticle  of  the  tree  or  in  the  tenderest  part  of  its 
bark.  Some,  again,  shut  themselves  up  in  one  or  many  leaves 
rolled  like  a  trumpet,  while  others  keep  at  the  summits  of  plants, 
whose  leaves  they  bind  together  in  a  parcel  with  threads.  And, 
lastly,  some  devour  the  stones  of  fruits,  such  as  that  of  the  olive. 

The  moths  of  these  caterpillars  are  very  small,  and  generally  of 
brilliant  metallic  colours.  They  are  to  be  found  in  the  woods,  and 
still  more  in  the  orchards,  from  the  beginning  of  June  till  the 
month  of  September. 

The  (Ecophora  are  very  slim  and  elegantly  formed.  Their 
anterior  wings,  which  are  very  narrow,  are  often  ornamented  with 
silvery  longitudinal  lines,  the  posterior  wings  exactly  resembling 
two  feathers. 

The  caterpillars  live  and  metamorphose  themselves  in  portable 
cases,  which  they  manufacture  from  the  membraneous  portions 
of  leaves,  whose  flesh  alone  they  eat.  These  cases  are  generally 
of  a  brown  colour,  resembling  a  dead  leaf.  They  are  attached 
perpendicularly  under  the  leaves  of  many  trees,  but  often  under 
those  of  fruit  trees. 

Certain  species  of  (Ecophorce  have  cases  partly  covered  with 
loose  pieces  only  slightly  attached,  formed  of  portions  of  leaves, 
and  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  Reaumur  compares  them  to  the 
furbelows  which  ladies  used  formerly  to  attach  to  the  bottom  of 
their  dresses. 


y. 

ORTHOPTERA. 

AMONG  the  Orthoptera*  we  meet  with  some  of  the  largest  of  insects, 
and  particularly  those  which  are  of  strange  and  extraordinary 
shapes.  The  best  known  insects  of  this  order  are  the  Mantes, 
Cockroaches,  Earwigs, f  Locusts,  .Grasshoppers,  Crickets,  &c. 

The  Orthoptera  have  the  anterior  wings  long,  narrow,  half- 
horny*  These  are  elytra,  which  serve  as  cases  for  their  second 
wings,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Coleoptera.  But  the  elytra  of  the 
Orthoptera  are  less  solid  and  less  complete  than  those  of  the 
Coleoptera.  Moreover,  they  generally  over-lap  each  other 
when  the  insect  is  at  rest,  which  is  another  distinctive  charac- 
teristic. The  second  wings  are  membraneous,  very  broad  and 
veined  ;  and,  when  at  rest,  are  folded  up  like  a  fan.  The  mouth 
is  composed  of  free  pieces.  The  mandibles,  the  jaws,  and  the 
two  lips,  always  well  developed,  show  them  to  be  insects  which 
grind  their  food.  Their  voracity,  and  the  rapid  way  in  which 
they  multiply,  sometimes  make  these  insects  the  pest  of  the 
country.  Above  all,  they  are  to  be  met  with  in  hot  countries, 
where  they  cause  such  great  damage  that  all  vegetation  disappears 
on  their  passage.  There  are  not  a  great  variety  of  species  of 
Orthoptera.  They  are  insects  whose  metamorphoses  are  incom- 
plete ;  that  is,  they  undergo  only  trifling  changes  from  the  moment 
when  the  eggs  are  hatched  to  the  time  when  the  insect  is  fully 
developed. 

When  it  leaves  the  egg,  the  young  one  resembles  its  parents ; 

*  From  6p9o£,  straight,  and  Trrtpov,  wing,  on  account  of  the  manner  in  "which  the 
under-wings  are  folded  under  the  upper. — ED. 

f  Made  a  separate  Order,  Dermaptera,  by  Kirby. — ED. 


284 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


it  differs  only  in  size  and  in  having  no  wings.  After  moulting 
four  or  five  times  it  has  almost  reached  its  full  growth,  and  its 
wings  begin  to  appear  under  a  sort  of  membrane.  This  is  the 
pupa  state.  A  final  moulting  sets  free  the  wings  also,  and  the 
insect,  now  perfect,  launches  itself  into  the  air  with  its  congeners. 

The  Orthoptera  are  vegetable  feeders,  and  frequently  commit 
great  ravages  on  various  crops.  They  are  divided  into  two  groups, 
viz.,  those  which  run,  and  those  which  jump  or  leap.  We  will  begin 
with  those  which  run,  which  contain  the  Earwig  (Forficula),  the 
Cockroach  (Blatta),  the  genus  Mantis  or  Leaf  insects,  and  the  genus 
Pkasma. 

The  Forficula,  or  Earwig,  is  represented  in  Figs.  298,  299,  300,  in 
its  three  different  states.  The  lower  wings  are  very  broad,  and 
folded  at  the  same  time  like  a  fan,  and  doubled  up.  Its  abdomen 
terminates  in  a  sort  of  pair  of  pincers,  resembling  those  which  the 
jewellers  formerly  used  for  piercing  the  ears  of  young  girls  as  a 
preparatory  step  to  their  wearing  earrings.  Hence,  without  doubt, 


Figs.  298,  299,  300.— Common  Earwig  ( Forficula  auricularia)— laiva,  pupa,  and  imago. 

their  French  name  of  Perce-oreille,  or  ear-piercer ;  for  there  is 
nothing  to  justify  the  vulgar  belief  that  these  insects  introduce 
themselves  into  the  ear,  and  bore  a  hole  in  its  interior,  through 
which  they  may  penetrate  into  the  brain  ;  in  fact,  they  are  very 
innocent  insects,  and  do  little  harm.  They  live  on  vegetable 
matter,  and  more  especially  the  interiors  of  certain  flowers. 

The  Forficula  avoid  the  light.  They  are  to  be  found  in  the 
chinks  of  trees,  under  bark,  and  under  stones.  The  female  watches 
over  the  eggs  with  maternal  solicitude,  and  carries  them  away 
elsewhere  when  they  are  touched.  She  also  protects  the  larva? 


OETHOPTERA.  285 

and  pupae  till  they  are  strong  enough  to  dispense  with  all  atten- 
tion. 

The  Blattce,  or  Cockroaches,  are  very  destructive  insects,  as  the 
name,  derived  from  the  Greek  word  fiXaTTTetv,  to  damage,  implies. 
They  are  omnivorous,  attacking  all  sorts  of  dead  substances,  vege- 
table and  animal.  Horace  reproaches  them  with  devouring  stuffs 
like  the  moths  : — 

"  Cui  stragula  vestis, 
Blattarum  ac  tinearum  epulae, 
Putrescit  in  area." 

These  disagreeable  insects  devour  our  eatables,  abounding  in 
kitchens,  in  bakers'  shops,  on  board  merchant  vessels,  &c.  Their 
flattened  bodies  allow  them  easily  to  introduce  themselves  into 
the  cracks  of  cases  or  barrels ;  so  that,  to  be  safe  against  their 
attacks,  it  is  necessary,  on  long  voyages,  to  shut  up  the  goods  in 
zinc-lined  boxes,  or  cases  made  of  sheet-iron  well  soldered  together. 

Chamisso  relates  that  the  sailors  having  opened  some  barrels 
which  should  have  contained  rice  and  wheat,  found  them  filled 
with  German  cockroaches.  This  transubstantiation  was  not  very 
agreeable  to  the  crew !  Other  naturalists  have  seen  this  insect 
invading  by  millions  bottles  which  had  contained  oil.  The 
Cockroach  is  very  fond  also  of  the  blacking  on  boots,  and  devours 
leather  and  all.  One  pupa  sometimes  eats  the  skin  cast  off  by 
another  pupa,  but  a  Cockroach  has  never  been  known  to  attack 
another,  with  a  view  to  eating  him  afterwards. 

These  Orthoptera  have  a  flat  broad  body,  the  thorax  very  much 
developed,  the  antennae  very  long,  and  the  legs  thin  but  strong, 
which  enable  them  to  run  with  remarkable  quickness.  They 
diffuse  around  them  a  sickening  odour,  which  often  hangs  about 
objects  they  have  touched.  Aristophanes,  the  comic  Greek  poet, 
mentions  this  peculiarity  in  his  comedy  of  "  The  Peace."  They 
come  out  mostly  at  night,  and  hide  themselves  during  the  day. 
They  are  the  most  cosmopolitan  of  all  insects.  Carried  over  in 
ships,  they  perpetuate  everywhere,  just  like  weeds !  Persian 
powder,  composed  of  pulverised  pyrethra,  is  an  excellent  means 
to  employ  for  their  destruction. 

Most  of  the  species  of  cockroaches  are  black,  or  brownish.    Two 


286  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

among  them,  the  Blatta  Germanica  and  the  Blatta  Laponica, 
which  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  woods  round  about  Paris,  have 
domesticated  themselves  in  dwellings  of  the  northern  countries. 
They  are  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  Russians  pretend 
that  the  former  was  imported  from  Prussia  by  their  army,  on  its 
return  from  Germany,  after  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756 — 1762). 
Till  this  period  it  was  unknown  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  now-a- 
days  it  is  met  with  in  great  numbers.  It  lives  in  houses,  and 
eats  pretty  nearly  everything,  but  prefers  white  bread  to  flour  and 
meat.  The  Blatta  Laponica  devours  the  smoked  fish  prepared 
for  the  winter. 

The  Grerman  naturalist,  Hummel,  made  some  interesting  obser- 
vations on  the  development  and  habits  of  the  very  prolific  Blatta 
Germanica.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  a  silky  capsule,  which  is  in  the 
form  of  a  bean,  with  two  valves  in  the  interior.  This  is  drawn 
about  for  some  time  appended  to  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen, 
and  after  a  time  abandoned. 

Hummel  placed  under  a  bell-glass  a  female  cockroach  and  a 
perfect  egg-pouch,  which  had  only  just  been  abandoned  by 
another  female.  He  saw  the  cockroach  approach  the  bag,  feel  it, 
and  turn  it  about  in  all  directions.  She  then  took  it  between  her 
front  legs,  and  made  a  longitudinal  opening  in  it.  As  the  opening 
grew  wider,  little  white  larvae  were  seen  to  come  from  it  rolled  up 
and  attached  two  together.  The  female  presided  at  this  operation. 
She  assisted  the  larvse  to  set  themselves  free,  drawing  them  out 
gently  with  her  antennae.  In  a  few  seconds  they  were  able  to 
walk,  when  she  ceased  to  trouble  herself  about  them. 

The  larvse  change  their  skin  six  times  before  reaching  the  per- 
fect state.  "When  they  come  out  of  their  skin  they  are  colourless, 
but  the  colour  comes  in  a  few  minutes.  At  the  fifth  moult,  which 
takes  place  three  months  after  birth,  they  become  pupae,  with 
rudimentary  wings,  the  whole  shape  of  the  insect  being  well 
marked.  The  sixth,  or  last  moult,  takes  place  at  the  end  of  six 
weeks.  The  pupa  is  now  changed  into  a  perfect  insect.  The 
female  is  distinguished  from  the  male  by  the  greater  size  of  her 
abdomen. 

The  most  destructive  of  the  Blattce,  or  Cockroaches,  are  those 
which  have  been  imported  into  Europe  by  the  ships  coming  from 


OETHOPTEEA. 


287 


the  colonies.  The  Kakerlac  Americana  is  from  one  inch  to  one 
inch  and  a  quarter  long.  It  infests  ships,  running  about  at  night 
over  the  sleeping  passengers,  and  devouring  the  food.  They 
are  to  be  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  They  abound 
particularly  in  the  warm  parts  of  America.  The  Blatta  orientalis 
is  more  commonly  met  with  than  the  above.  It  swarms  in 
kitchens,  in  bakers'  shops,  provision  shops,  &c.,  where  it  hides 
in  the  cracks  of  the  walls,  or  against  the  hinges  of  the  doors. 
It  is  a  small  hideous  animal, 
of  a  repulsive  smell,  and  of  a 
reddish  brown  colour.  It  is  a  little 
larger  than  the  Blatta  Ameri- 
cana. In  France  it  is  called  by 
various  names,  such  as  Cafard, 
Panetiere,  Noirot,  Bete  noir,  &c. 
If  in  the  middle  of  the  night  you 
suddenly  enter  with  a  light  into 
the  down-stairs  kitchens,  you  will 
often  see  these  little  beasts  run- 
ning about  on  the  table,  and 
devouring  the  remains  of  the 
food,  with  astonishing  rapidity. 

The  largest  species  of  the  genus  of  which  we  are  now  treating 
is  the  Kakerlac  insignis,  which  inhabits  Cayenne  and  Brazil,  and 
in  length  sometimes  exceeds  an  inch  and  three-quarters,  and  in 
the  extent  of  its  wings  four  inches  and  a  half. 

It  is  principally  in  hot  countries  that  the  cockroaches  do  the 
greatest  damage.  In  the  Antilles,  of  which  they  are  the  pest, 
it  is  affirmed  that  they  can  in  one  single  night  bore  holes  through 
trunks,  through  cases,  and  through  bags,  and  destroy  objects 
which  were  supposed  to  be  in  perfect  safety.  Sometimes  the 
walls,  the  floors,  the  beds,  the  tables,  everything,  in  short,  is 
infested  by  them,  and  it  is  impossible  to  find  a  way  of  preserving 
the  food  from  their  repulsive  touch.  One  can,  however,  partially 
succeed  in  destroying  them  by  the  aid  of  insect  powders.  They 
have,  besides,  natural  enemies.  Poultry  and  owls  are  very  fond 
of  them.  A  species  of  wasp,  Chlorion  compressum,  lays  up  a  stock 
of  cockroaches,  which  it  previously  renders  insensible,  for  its 


Fig.  301.— The  Cockroach  (Blatta  or ien' alls). 


288  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

larvae.  Many  species  of  Chalcidice,  a  family  of  Hymenoptera,  also 
live  on  the  eggs  of  these  Orthoptera.  There  are  also  among 
the  cockroaches  certain  brightly- coloured  exotic  species.  These 
colours  show  that  they  do  not  avoid  the  light.  "We  will  mention 
as  examples  the  Bracks/cola  robusta  and  the  species  of  Corydia. 

The  MantiddB  are  pretty  insects,  of  very  different  habits  from  the 
preceding.  They  alone  of  the  Orthoptera  are  carnivorous.  They 
eat  live  insects,  seizing  their  prey  as  it  passes  by  them.  They 
rest  generally  on  shrubs,  remaining  for  hours  together  perfectly 
motionless,  the  better  to  deceive  other  insects  which  are  to  become 
their  victims. 

It  is  this  fixed  and,  as  it  were,  meditative  attitude  which  has 
gained  for  them  the  name  of  Mantis,  derived  from  the  Greek 
word  iiavTLg,  or  "  diviner,"  as  it  was  imagined  that  in  this  attitude 
they  interrogated  the  future.  The  manner  in  which  they  hold 
their  long  front  legs,  raised  like  arms  to  heaven,  has  also  con- 
tributed to  make  this  superstitious  notion  believed,  and  sufficiently 
explains  the  names  given  to  divers  species  of  Mantidce  ;  such  as 
Nun,  Saint,  Preacher,  Suppliant,  Mendicant,  &c.  Caillaud,  the 
traveller,  tells  us  that  in  Central  Africa  a  Mantis  is  an  object  of 
worship.  According  to  Sparmann,  another  species  is  worshipped 
by  the  Hottentots.  If  by  chance  a  Mantis  should  settle  on  a 
person,  this  person  is  considered  by  them  to  have  received  a  par- 
ticular favour  from  heaven,  and  from  that  moment  takes  rank 
among  the  saints ! 

In  France  the  country-people  believe  that  these  insects  point 
out  the  way  to  travellers.  Mouffet,  a  naturalist  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  says  on  this  subject,  in  a  description  of  the  Mantis, 
"  This  little  creature  is  considered  of  so  divine  a  nature,  that  to 
a  child  who  asks  it  its  way,  it  points  it  out  by  stretching  out  one 
of  its  legs,  and  rarely  or  never  makes  a  mistake." 

In  the  eyes  of  the  Languedoc  peasants  the  Mantis  religiosa  is 
held  almost  sacred.  They  call  it  Prega-Diou  (Prie-Dieu),  and 
believe  firmly  that  it  performs  its  devotions,  its  attitude,  when  it 
is  on  the  watch  for  its  prey,  resembling  that  of  prayer.  Settled  on 
the  ground,  it  raises  its  head  and  thorax,  clasps  together  the 
joints  of  its  front  legs,  and  remains  thus  motionless  for  hours 
together.  But  only  let  an  imprudent  fly  come  within  reach  of  our 


ORTHOPTEBA. 


289 


devotee,  and  you  will  see  it  stealthily  approach  it,  like  a  cat  who 
is  watching  a  mouse,  and  with  so  much  precaution  that  you  can 
scarcely  see  that  it  is  moving.  Then,  all  of  a  sudden,  as  quick  as 


Fig.  302.— Mantis  religiosa  and  its  larva  (A).    Blepharis  mendica  and  its  larva  (B). 

lightning,  it  seizes  its  victim  between  its  legs,  provided  with 
sharp  spines,  which  cross  each  other,  conveys  it  to  its  mouth, 
and  devours  it.  Our  make-believe  Nun,  Preacher,  our  Prega- 

u 


290  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

Diou,  is  nothing  better  than  a  patient  watcher  and  pitiless  destroyer. 
The  Mantis  religiosa  (Fig.  302),  common  enough  in  the  south 
of  France,  comes  as  far  north  as  the  environs  of  Fontain- 
bleau.  The  Mantis  oratoria,  rather  small,  is  less  commonly  met 
with. 

These  elegant  insects  are  remarkable  for  their  long  slim  bodies, 
their  large  wings,  and  their  colours,  whiclj.  are  generally  very 
bright.  In  some  species  their  green  or  yellowish  elytra  look  so 
exactly  like  the  leaves  of  trees  that  one  can  hardly  help  taking 
them  for  such. 

The  Mantis  lays  its  eggs  at  the  end  of  summer,  in  rounded, 
very  fragile  shells,  attached  to  the  branches  of  trees;  they  do 
not  hatch  till  the  following  summer.  The  larvae  undergo  several 
successive  moultings.  Nothing  equals  the  ferocity  of  these 
Orthoptera.  If  two  of  them  are  shut  up  together,  they  engage 
in  a  desperate  combat;  they  deal  each  other  blows  with  their 
front  legs,  and  do  not  leave  off  fencing  till  the  stronger  of  the 
two  has  succeeded  in  eating  off  the  other's  head.  From  their  very 
birth,  the  larvae  attack  each  other.  The  male  being  smaller  than 
the  female,  is  often  its  victim. 

Kirby  tells  us  that  in  China  the  children  procure  them  as 
in  France  they  do  cockchafers,,  and  shut  them  up  in  bamboo 
cages  to  enjoy  the  exciting  spectacle  of  their  combats. 

The  Acanthops,  a  species  of  this  family,  inhabits  the  Brazils. 

Akin  to  the  Mantis  are  the  Eremiaphilas,  which  live  in  the 
deserts  of  Africa  and  Arabia.  They  drag  themselves  gently  along 
on  the  ground,  and  as  they  are  of  the  same  colour  as  the  sand  on 
which  they  are  found,  it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  them  when 
at  rest.  The  traveller,  Lefebvre,  relates  that  he  always  found 
these  Orthoptera  in  places  destitute  of  all  vegetation,  and  where 
there  were  no  other  sorts  of  insects  which  could  have  served  them 
for  food;  it  is  therefore  probable  that  they  live  on  microscopic 
insects. 

The  Empusa,  which  forms  another  genus  of  Mantida,  has 
the  antennas  indented  like  a  comb  in  the  males,  thread-like  in 
the  females.  The  Empusa  gongylodes,  which  inhabits  Africa,  has 
cuffs  to  its  arms  and  flounces  to  its  robe. 

The  genus  Blepharis,  to  which  belongs  the  Blepharis  mendica, 


OE-THOFrERA.  291 

is  met  with  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  in  the  Canary  Islands.  This 
insect,  which  is  of  a  pale  green,  is  not  rare  in  the  south  of  France. 
It  is  represented  with  the  Mantis  religiosa  in  Fig.  302. 

The  Phasmce,  or  Spectres,  are  distinguished  from  the  Mantidce  by 
their  very  elongated  bodies,  straight  and  stiff  as  a  stick,  by  their 
having  no  prehensile  legs,  and  by  their  food,  which  is  exclusively 
vegetable.  Their  eggs  are  laid  uncovered,  having  no  silky  envelope. 
As  for  the  habits  of  these  insects,  they  are  little  known,  the 
greatest  number  of  the  species  being  exotics,  inhabiting  chiefly 
South  America,  Asia,  Africa,  and  New  Holland.  It  is  in  this 
tribe  that  we  meet  the  most  extraordinary  and  the  most  mon- 
strously shaped  insects,  as  the  popular  names  they  have  received 
in  different  countries  show :  such  as  Spectres,  Phantoms,  Devil's 
Horses,  Soldiers  of  Cayenne,  Walking  Leaves,  Animated 
Sticks,  &c. 

Among  the  Phasmse  we  also  find  the  largest  insects  known,  for 
they  attain  a  considerable  length,  Phasma  gigas  nearly  reaching  a 
foot.  The  most  beautiful  are  those  of  New  Holland  and  of  Tas- 
mania, such  as  Cyphocrana  (Phasma)  gigas. 

Some  species  are  destitute  of  wings,  and  resemble  so  exactly 
dry  sticks  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  the  difference.  The 
best  known  is  the  Phasma  Rossi  (Fig.  303),  which  is  found  in 
the  south  of  France.  This  inoffensive  insect  walks  gently 
along  the  branches  of  trees,  and  likes  to  repose  in  the  sun,  its 
long  antennae-like  legs  stretched  out  in  front.  Others  of  the 
genus  Phyllium  are  provided  with  wings,  and  have  altogether  the 
appearance  of  the  leaves  on  which  they  live ;  such  are  the  Walking 
Leaves  of  the  East  Indies.  According  to  Cunningham,  all  these 
insects  are  of  solitary  and  peaceable  habits.  They  are  only  to 
be  met  with,  alone  or  in  pairs,  drawing  themselves  gently  along 
on  shrubs,  on  which  they  pass  the  hottest  months  of  the  year. 
Some  of  them,  when  they  are  seized,  emit  a  milky  liquid,  of  a 
very  strong  and  disagreeable  odour. 

Those  Orthoptera  which  we  have  already  mentioned  had  all 
their  six  legs  adapted  to  running,  and  are  called  Cursoria.  Those 
which  jump,  to  which  we  now  come,  have  their  hind-legs 
stronger  and  thicker,  which  enables  them  to  leap,  and  are  on  that 
account  called  Saltatoria.  This  section  comprises  three  families, 


292 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


which  have  for  their  principal  types  the  Crickets,   Locusts,  and 
Grasshoppers. 

All  these  insects  resemble  each  other  in  the  disproportion  which 


Fig.  303. — Phasma  llossi — male,  female,  and  larva. 

exists  between  their  hind-legs  and  the  other  pairs.  Another 
characteristic  which  is  common  to  them  consists  in  the  song  of  the 
males.  This  song,  so  well  known,  which  seems  to  have  for  its 


OETHOPTEEA.  293 

object  to  call  the  females,  is  nothing  but  a  sort  of  stridulation  or 
screeching,  produced  by  the  rubbing  together  of  the  wing  cases  or 
elytra.  But  the  mechanism  by  which  this  is  produced  varies  a 
little  in  all  the  three  kinds.  With  the  Crickets  the  whole  surface 
of  the  wing  cases  is  covered  with  thick  nervures,  very  prominent 
and  very  hard,  which  cause  the  noise  the  insect  produces  in  rub- 
bing the  elytra  one  against  the  other.  With  the  Locusts,  there 
exists  only  at  the  base  of  the  elytra  a  transparent  membrane  called 
the  mirror,  which  is  furnished  with  prominent  nervures,  and 
produces  the  screeching  noise.  And,  lastly,  in  the  Crickets  the 
thighs  and  elytra  are  provided  with  very  hard  ridges.  The 
thighs,  being  passed  rapidly  and  with  force  over  the  nervures  of 
the  elytra,  produce  the  sound,  in  the  same  way  as  a  fiddle-bow  when 
drawn  across  the  strings  of  a  violin.  With  all  these  insects 
the  male  alone  is  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  producing  sound. 

The  Crickets  and  Grasshoppers  have  very  long  thin  antenna?, 
whilst  the  Locusts  have  short  antennae,  and  either  flattened 
or  filiform,  or  swelling  out  at  one  extremity  like  a  club.  The 
female  of  the  first  two  is  provided  with  an  ovipositor  in  the  shape  of 
an  auger. 

We  will  study  successively  the  three  types  of  these  families, 
that  is  to  say,  the  Crickets,  the  Locusts,  and  the  Grasshoppers. 


Fip.  304.— Field  Cricket  (Gryllus  campestiis). 

The  Field  Cricket  ( Gryllus  campestris,  Fig.  304)  lives  alone  in  a 
hole  which  it  digs  in  the  ground,  and  in  which  it  remains  during 
the  day.  It  only  quits  its  retreat  at  night,  when  it  goes  in 


294  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

search  of  food.  It  is  very  timid,  and  at  the  least  noise  ceases  its 
song.  If  it  is  stationed  on  the  side  of  its  hole,  it  retreats  into  it 
the  moment  any  one  approaches. 

The  holes  of  the  crickets  are  well  known  to  country  children, 
who  take  these  insects  by  presenting  a  straw  to  them.  The 
pugnacious  cricket  seizes  it  directly  with  its  mandibles,  and 
lets  itself  be  drawn  out  of  its  hole.  It  is  this  which  has  given 
rise  to  the  saying,  "plus  sot  qu'un  grillon  "  (a  greater  fool  than  a 
cricket).  It  is  very  susceptible  of  cold,  and  always  makes  the 
opening  of  its  hole  towards  the  south.  It  lives  on  herbs,  perhaps 
also  on  insects. 

The  House  Cricket  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  of  an  a,shy  colour, 
and  is  to  be  met  with  principally  in  bakers'  shops  and  country 
kitchens,  where  it  hides  itself  during  the  day  in  the  crevices  of  the 
walls  or  at  the  back  of  the  fireplaces.  It  eats  flour,  and  also, 
perhaps,  the  little  insects  which  live  in  flour. 

If  crickets  are  put  into  a  box  together,  they  devour  each 
other.  This  does  not  prove  conclusively  that  they  are  carnivorous, 
for  there  are  many  species,  eating  nothing  but  vegetables,  which 
would  destroy  each  other  in  a  similar  case.  Some  authors  say 
that  these  insects  are  always  thirsty,  for  they  are  often  to  be  found 
drowned  in  the  vessels  containing  any  kind  of  liquid.  Everything 
damp  is  to  their  taste.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  they  sometimes 
make  holes  in  wet  clothes  which  are  hung  up  before  the  fire  to 
dry.  They  inhabit,  by  preference,  houses  newly  built ;  for  the 
mortar,  being  still  damp,  allows  them  to  hollow  out  their  dwelling- 
places  with  greater  ease. 

The  habits  of  the  House  Cricket  (Gryllus  domesticus) ,  are  noc- 
turnal, like  those  of  its  congener  of  the  fields.  It  is  only  at  night 
that  it  leaves  its  retreat  to  seek  its  food.  When  it  is  exposed 
against  its  will  to  the  light  of  day,  it  appears  to  be  in  a  state  of 
torpor.  This  insect  reminds  one  of  the  owl,  among  birds,  not 
only  from  its  habit  of  avoiding  the  light,  but  also  from  its  mono- 
tonous song,  which  the  vulgar  consider,  one  does  not  know  why,  a 
foreboding  of  ill-luck  to  the  house  in  which  it  is  heard.  Formerly 
this  singular  prejudice  was  much  deeper  rooted  than  it  is  at 
present.  The  song  of  the  cricket  has  merely  the  object  of  calling 
the  female.  The  Wood  Cricket  ( Gryllus  •Nem.obiii.s)  sj/lvestris)  is 


OETHOPTERA.  295 

much  smaller  than  the  above,  and  is  met  with  in  great  numbers 
in  the  woods,  where  its  leaps  sometimes  produce  the  noise  of  drops 
of  rain. 

The  female  crickets  have  a  long  auger,  with  which  they  deposit 
their  eggs,  of  which  each  one  lays,  towards  the  middle  of  the 
summer,  about  three  hundred,  in  the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  soil. 
The  larvae  pass  the  winter  in  that  state,  and  do  not  become  pupae 
and  perfect  insects  till  the  following  summer. 

Mouffet  relates  that,  in  certain  regions  of  Africa,  the  crickets  are 
objects  of  commerce.  They  are  brought  up  in  little  cages,  as  we 
do  Canary  birds,  and  sold  to  the  inhabitants,  who  like  to  hear 
their  amorous  chant.  This  song  lulls  them  to  sleep.  It  is  said 
that  certain  peoples  eat  these  insects.  In  France  they  are  sought 


Fig.  305. — Mole  Cricket  (Gryllo-talpa  vulgaris). 

after  as  baits  for  fishing,  and  are  used  also  in  menageries  for 
feeding  small  reptiles.  Next  to  Gryllus  come  the  genera 
^Ecanthus,  insects  of  the  south  of  Europe,  which  live  on  plants, 
and  which  one  often  sees  fluttering  about  flowers  ;  Sphteria,  which 
live  in  ant-hills ;  Platydactylus ;  and,  lastly,  the  Mole  Cricket 
(Gryllo-talpa),  whose  habits  deserve  attention  for  awhile. 


296  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

The  Mole  Crickets  are  distinguished  from  all  other  insects  by 
the  structure  of  their  fore-legs,  which  are  wide  and  indented,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  resemble  a  hand,  analogous  to  that  of  the 
mole.  This  hand  betrays  its  habits  much  better  than  our  hands 
betray  ours.  One  need  not  be  much  of  a  fortune-teller  to  read  on 
it  its  digging  habits.  They  make  use  of  their  hands,  indeed,  as 
spades,  with  which  they  hollow  out  subterranean  galleries,  and 
accumulate  at  the  side  of  the  entrance-hole  the  rubbish  thus 
drawn  out.  Their  French  name  comes  from  the  old  French  word 
courtille,  which  means  garden.  It  reminds  one  that  these  are 
the  favourite  haunts  of  these  destructive  insects. 

If  the  Mole  Crickets,  or  Courtilieres,  have  spades  to  their  front 
legs,  their  hind-legs  are  very  little  developed,  so  that  it  would 
be  perfectly  impossible  for  them  to  jump,  particularly  as  their 
large  abdomen  would  hinder  their  so  doing.  The  wings  are  broad, 
and  fold  back  in  the  form  of  a  fan ;  they  make  little  use  of 
them,  and  it  is  only  at  night-fall  that  the  mole  cricket  is  seen 
to  disport  himself,  describing  curves  of  not  much  height  in  the 
air.  It  is  found  principally  in  cultivated  land,  kitchen  gardens, 
nursery  gardens,  wheat  fields,  &c.,  where  it  scoops  out  for 
itself  an  oval  cavity  communicating  with  the  surface  by  a  ver- 
tical hole  (Fig.  303).  On  this  hole  abut  numerous  horizontal 
galleries,  more  or  less  inclined,  which  permit  the  insect  to  gain  its 
retreat  by  a  great  many  roads  when  pursued. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  that  an  insect  which  undermines 
land  in  this  way  must  cause  great  damage  to  cultivation. 
Whether  the  crops  serve  it  for  food  or  not,  they  are  not  the  less 
destroyed  by  its  underground  burro  wings.  Lands  infested  by  the 
mole  cricket  are  recognisable  by  the  colour  of  the  vegetation, 
which  is  yellow  and  withered ;  and  the  rubbish  which  these  miners 
heap  up  at  the  side  of  the  openings  leading  to  their  galleries, 
resembling  mole-hills  in  miniature,  betrays  their  presence  to 
the  farmer.  To  destroy  them  they  pour  water  or  other  liquids 
into  their  nests,  or  else  they  bury,  at  different  distances,  vessels 
filled  with  water,  in  which  they  drown  themselves.  From  the 
month  of  April  the  males  betake  themselves  to  the  entrance  of 
their  burrows  and  make  their  cry  of  appeal.  Their  notes  are  slow, 
vibrating,  and  monotonous,  and  repeated  for  a  long  time  without 


ORTHOPTERA.  297 

interruption,  and  somewhat  resembling  the  cry  of  the  owl  or  the 
goat- sucker. 

The  impregnated  female  lays  her  eggs,  to  the  number  of  from 


Fig.  306.— The  nest  of  the  Mole  Cricket  (Gryilo-talpa  vu'garis). 

two  to  three  hundred,  in  the  interior  of  a  sort  of  chamber  scooped 
out  in  soil  stiff  enough  to  resist  the  action  of  rain.  The  hatching 
takes  place  at  the  end  of  a  month. 


298  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

It  is  not  till  the  following  spring  that  the  larvae  pass  into 
the  pupa  state,  and  that  the  organs  of  flight  begin  to  be  marked 
out.  According  to  M.  Feburier,  three  years  are  required  for  the 
complete  development  of  the  mole  cricket,  which  is  a  fact  that 
indicates  remarkable  longevity  in  these  insects.  All  authors 
agree,  moreover,  in  extolling  the  solicitude  with  which  the  mole 
cricket  takes  care  of  her  little  ones.  She  watches  over  them,  and, 
they  say,  procures  them  food. 

The  genus  Tridactylus,  which  bears  a  great  analogy  to  the  mole 
cricket,  is  the  smallest  genus  of  Orthoptera  known  :  the  species 
are  not  more  than  a  sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  are  found 
in  the  south  of  France,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone  and  other 
rivers,  where  they  disport  themselves  in  sand  exposed  to  the  sun. 
The  Tridactyli  leap  with  remarkable  agility,  evan  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  for  their  legs  are  provided  with  flat  appendages 
much  resembling  battledores. 

The  Grasshoppers  and  Locusts  take  much  longer  leaps  than  the 
Crickets,  owing  to  the  conformation  of  their  hind-legs,  and  they 
often  make  use  of  their  wings  also,  which  are  very  fully  developed. 
These  insects  are  unable  to  walk  on  account  of  the  disproportion 
which  exists  between  their  different  pairs  of  legs.  The  female  is 
provided  with  a  curved  auger  with  two  valves,  which  serves  for 
breaking  up  the  ground  for  the  reception  of  its  eggs.  The  male 
produces  a  sharp  stridulation  or  screeching  sound,  by  rubbing 
the  cases  of  its  wings,  which  are  furnished  with  plates  which 
might  be  compared  to  cymbals,  one  against  another. 

The  song  of  the  grasshopper,  known  by  every  one,  is  a  mono- 
tonous zic-zic-zic,  which  can  be  heard  during  the  day  in  grassy 
places.  It  is  on  account  of  this  song  that  the  name  of  Cigale  is 
sometimes  given,  though  wrongly,  to  the  great  green  grasshopper. 
As  we  have  already  said  in  speaking  of  the  Cigale,  it  is  the  green 
grasshopper  which  La  Fontaine  had  in  view  in  his  fable  of  La 
Cigale  et  la  Fourmi,  for  all  the  plates  which  ornament  the  ancient 
editions  of  the  fables  of  this  author  represent  a  grasshopper,  and 
not  a  Cigale.  Grasshoppers  are  spread  over  the  whole  surface  of 
the  earth,  but  are  to  be  met  with  chiefly  in  South  America,  which 
contains  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  species  known.  The  European 
species,  on  the  contrary,  are  few. 


ORTHOPTEEA. 


299 


Their  habits  resemble  those  of  the  other  herbivorous  Orthoptera. 
They  live  in  meadows,  on  trees,  devouring  the  leaves  and  stalks 
of  plants  ;  but  they  are  never  found  in  such  great  numbers  as 
to  cause  damage  at  all  to  be  compared  to  that  caused  by  the 
Locust.  ^ hey  appear  in  the  month  of  July  and  disappear  at  the 
beginning  of  the  cold  weather.  Towards  the  end  of  the  summer, 
their  song  is  heard  in  the  meadows  and  wheat  fields.  The  females, 
summoned  by  the  males,  are  not  long  in  coupling  and  laying  their 
eggs,  which  do  not  hatch  until  the  following  spring,  in  the  ground. 
After  four  months  they  change  into  pupae,  which  already  show 
rudimentary  wings,  and  which  by  a  fifth  month  pass  into  the 
perfect  state. 

The  Great  Green  Grasshopper  (Locusta  viridissima)  is  very  com- 
mon in  Europe.  It  remains  during  the  day  on  trees,  and  in 
the  evening  disports  itself  in  the  fields. 


Jig.  307.— Decticus  verrucivorus. 

The  Decticus  verrucivorus  (Fig.  307)  is  a  shorter  and  more  thick- 
set species,  whose  distinctive  feature  is  a  very  broad  head.  Its 
colour  is  grey  of  various  shades,  and  it  is  to  be  heard  singing  during 
the  day  in  fields  of  ripe  wheat.  The  name  comes  from  the  use 
made  of  it  by  the  peasants  in  Sweden  and  Germany  as  a  cure 
for  warts. 


300  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

"  The  peasants,"  says  Charles  de  Geer,  "  make  these  Locusts 
bite  the  warts  which  they  often  have  on  their  hands,  and  the 
liquid  which  at  the  same  time  flows  from  the  insect's  mouth  into 
the  wound,  causes  the  warts  to  dry  up  and  disappear.  It  is  for 
this  reason  they  have  given  them  the  name  of  Wart-bit  or  Wart- 
biter." 

The  Phaneropteras  and  the  Copiphoras  are  exotic  locusts.  The 
Ephippigers  are  small  species  whose  thorax,  which  is  very  convex, 
resembles  a  saddle. 

One  often  meets  in  the  environs  of  Paris  the  Vine  Ephippiger 
(Ephippiger  vitium),  which  is  greenish,  with  four  brown  stripes  on 
its  head.  In  this  species  the  wing  cases  or  elytra  are  almost 
obsolete,  and  the  wings  are  reduced  to  mere  arched  scales  whose 
friction  produces  a  stridulation  or  screeching  noise.  The  females  are 
provided  with  a  similar  apparatus,  so  that  they  perform  duets.* 

The  genus  Grillacris  resembles  the  crickets.  It  contains  the 
Anostostomcs  of  New  Holland,  which  are  said  to  be  destitute  of 
wings,  even  in  the  perfect  state. 

We  arrive  now  at  the  redoubtable  tribe  of  Acrydium,  or  Locust, 
whose  fearful  ravages  are  so  well  known. 

These  are  among  the  Orthoptera  the  best  adapted  for  jump- 
ing. The  thigh  and  the  leg,  folded  together  when  at  rest, 
are  stretched  out  suddenly  under  the  action  of  very  powerful 
muscles.  The  body,  resting  then  on  the  tarsi  and  on  the  flexible 
spines  of  the  legs,  is  shot  into  the  air  to  a  great  height. 
They  fly  very  well,  but  the  power  of  walking  and  running  is 
denied  to  them,  as  it  is  also  to  the  other  Saltatoria.  The  females 
have  no  ovipositor.  This  peculiarity,  and  the  formation  of  their 
antennae,  which  are  very  short,  distinguish  the  Locusts  from  the 
Grasshoppers. 

The  males,  as  we  have  already  said,  make  a  shrill  stridulation 
by  rubbing  their  thighs  over  their  elytra.  There  is  never  more 
than  one  thigh  in  motion  at  a  time ;  the  insect  using  the  right 
and  the  left  by  turns.  The  sound  is  made  stronger  by  a  sort  of 

*  The  species  of  genus  Saga  sometimes  reach  extraordinary  dimensions.  Thus, 
in  1863,  there  was  found  in  Syria,  after  a  shower  of  ordinary  locusts,  a  specimen 
of  the  Saga  which  was  three  inches  and  a  quarter  long.  Tt  svas  presented  to  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  of  Paris,  hy  M.  L.  Del  air. 


OKTHOPTEBA. 


.'J01 


drum  filled  with  air,  and  covered  with  a  very  thin  skin,  which  is 
found  on  each  side  of  the  body,  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  The 
locust's  song  is  less  monotonous  than  that  of  the  grasshopper. 
It  is  capable  of  much  variation  ;  it  is  a  noise  just  like  that  of  a 
rattle,  but  with  sounds  which  vary  very  much,  according  to  the 
species. 

They  move  about  by  day,  frequent  dry  places,  and  are  very 
fond  of  sitting  on  the  grass  in  the  sun.  Certain  species,  which 
inhabit  the  warm  regions  of  the  south,  move  their  legs  with 
scarcely  any  noise ;  it  being  only  perceptible  to  a  very  fine  ear. 

Locusts  are  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  In 
northern  countries,  where  they  multiply  less  rapidly,  their  ravages 
are  less  disastrous,  though  still  very  considerable.  But  in  the 
southern  portions  of  the  globe  they  are  a  perfect  pest — the  eighth 
plague  of  Egypt.  Certain  species  multiply  in  such  a  prodigious 


Fig.  308.— Locust  (Acrydium  (^Edipodium)  migrator  iam). 

manner,  that  they  lay  waste  vast  spaces  of  land,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  reduce  whole  countries  to  the  very  last  state  of  misery. 
These  insects  inflate  themselves  with  air,  and  undertake  journeys 
during  which  they  travel  more  than  six  leagues  a  day,  laying- 
waste  all  vegetation  on  their  road. 

The  most  destructive  species  is  the  Migratory  Locust  (Acrydium 
or  sEdipodium  migratorium.  Fig.  308),  which  is  very  common  in 
Africa,  India,  and  throughout  the  whole  of  the  East.  Isolated 
specimens  of  this  insect  are  to  be  found  in  the  meadows  round 
about  Paris,  especially  towards  the  end  of  the  summer,  and,  very 


302  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

rarely,  in  England.  This  species  is  greenish,  with  transparent 
elytra  of  a  dirty  grey,  whitish  wings,  and  pink  legs.  A  second 
species,  the  Italian  Locust,  also  does  a  great  deal  of  damage  in  the 
south.  All  the  species  undergo  five  moults,  which  take  six  weeks 
each.  The  last  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  hot  weather,  towards 
the  autumn. 

It  is  especially  in  warm  climates  that  they  become  such 
fearful  pests  to  agriculture.  "Wherever  they  alight,  they  change 
the  most  fertile  country  into  an  arid  desert.  They  are  seen  coming 
in  innumerable  bands,  which,  from  afar,  have  the  appearance  of 
stormy  clouds,  even  hiding  the  sun.  As  far  and  as  wide  as  the 
eye  can  reach,  the  sky  is  black,  and  the  soil  is  inundated  with 
them.  The  noise  of  these  millions  of  wings  may  be  compared 
to  the  sound  of  a  cataract.  When  this  fearful  army  alights 
upon  the  ground,  the  branches  of  the  trees  break,  and  in  a  few 
hours,  and  over  an  extent  of  many  leagues,  all  vegetation  has 
disappeared,  the  wheat  is  gnawed  to  its  very  roots,  the  trees  are 
stripped  of  their  leaves.  Everything  has  been  destroyed,  gnawed 
down,  and  devoured.  When  nothing  more  is  left,  the  terrible 
host  rises,  as  if  in  obedience  to  some  given  signal,  and  takes  its 
departure,  leaving  behind  it  despair  and  famine.  It  goes  to  look 
for  fresh  food — seeking  whom,  or  rather  in  this  case,  what  it  may 
devour  ! 

During  the  year  succeeding  that  in  which  a  country  has  been 
devastated  by  showers  of  locusts,  damage  from  these  insects  is  the 
less  to  be  feared ;  for  it  happens  often  that  after  having  ravaged 
everything,  they  die  of  hunger  before  the  laying  season  begins. 
But  their  death  becomes  the  cause  of  a  greater  evil.  Their 
innumerable  carcases,  lying  in  heaps  and  heated  by  the  sun,  are 
not  long  in  entering  into  a  state  of  putrefaction  ;  epidemic  diseases, 
caused  by  the  poisonous  gases  emanating  from  them,  soon  break 
out,  and  decimate  the  populations.  These  Locusts  are  bred  in 
the  deserts  of  Arabia  and  Tartary ;  and  the  east  winds  carry 
them  into  Africa  and  Europe.  Ships  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  are  sometimes  covered  with  them  at  a  great  dis- 
tance from  the  land. 

It  is  related  in  the  Bible,  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Exodus,  that 
Jehovah  commanded  Moses  to  stretch  forth  his  hand  to  make 


OKTHOPTEKA.  303 

locusts  (Arbeth)  come  over  the  whole  land  of  Egypt,  as  the  eighth 
plague,  destined  to  intimidate  Pharaoh,  who  had  rebelled  against 
Him.  These  insects  arrived,  brought  by  an  east  wind,  and  covered 
the  surface  of  the  country  to  such  a  degree  that  the  air  was 
darkened  by  them.* 

They  ate  up  all  the  herbs  of  the  field  and  all  the  fruit  of  the 
trees  which  the  hail  (the  seventh  plague)  had  left.  A  west  wind 
swept  them  away  again,  when  Pharaoh  had  at  last  promised  to 
allow  the  children  of  Israel  to  depart. 

Pliny  relates  that  in  many  places  in  Greece  a  law  obliged  the 
inhabitants  to  wage  war  against  the  locusts  three  times  a  year ; 
that  is  to  say,  in  their  three  states  of  egg,  larva,  and  adult.  In 
the  isle  of  Lemnos,  the  citizens  had  to  pay  as  taxes  so  many 
measures  of  locusts.  In  the  year  170  before  our  era,  they  devas- 
tated the  environs  of  Capua.  In  the  year  of  our  Lord  181, 
they  committed  great  ravages  in  the  north  of  Italy  and  in  Gaul. 
In  1690  locusts  arrived  in  Poland  and  Lithuania  by  three 
different  ways,  and,  as  it  were,  in  three  different  bodies.  "  They 
were  to  be  found  in  certain  places  where  they  had  died,"  writes 
the  Abbe*  Ussaris,  an  eye-witness,  "  lying  on  one  another  in 
heaps  of  four  feet  in  height.  Those  which  were  alive  perched 
upon  the  trees,  bending  their  branches  to  the  ground,  so  great 
was  their  number.  The  people  thought  that  they  had  Hebrew 
letters  on  their  wings.  A  rabbi  professed  to  be  able  to  read  on 
them  words  which  signified  God's  wrath.  The  rains  killed  these 
insects :  they  infected  the  air,  and  the  cattle,  which  eat  them  in 
the  grass,  died  immediately." 

In  1749,  locusts  stopped  the  army  of  Charles  XII.,  King  of 
Sweden,  as  it  was  retreating  from  Bessarabia,  on  its  defeat  at 
Pultawa.  The  king  thought  that  he  was  assailed  by  a  hailstorm, 

*  "  And  Moses  stretched  forth  his  rod  over  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  the  Lord 
brought  an  east  wind  upon  the  land  all  that  day,  and  all  that  night ;  and  when  it 
was  morning,  the  east  wind  brought  the  locusts.  And  the  locusts  went  up  over  all 
the  land  of  Egypt,  and  rested  in  all  the  coasts  of  Egypt ;  very  grievous  were  they  ; 
before  them  were  no  such  locusts  as  they,  neither  after  them  shall  be  such.  For 
they  covered  the  face  of  the  whole  earth,  so  that  the  land  was  darkened  ;  and  they 
did  eat  every  herb  of  the  land,  and  all  the  fruit  of  the  trees  which  the  hail  had  left ; 
and  there  remained  not  any  green  thing  in  the  trees,  or  in  the  herbs  of  the  field, 
through  all  the  land  of  Egypt." — Exod.  x.  13—15. 

AL-L,  I *    &~ 


304  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

when  a  host  of  these  insects  beat  violently  against  his  army  as  it 
was  passing  through  a  defile,  so  that  men  and  horses  were  blinded 
by  this  living  hail,  falling  from  a  cloud  which  hid  the  sun.  The 
arrival  of  the  locusts  had  been  announced  by  a  whistling  sound 
like  that  which  precedes  a  tempest ;  and  the  noise  of  their  flight 
quite  overpowered  the  noise  made  by  the  Black  Sea.  All  the 
country  round  about  was  soon  laid  waste  on  their  route.  During 
the  same  year  a  great  part  of  Europe  was  invaded  by  these  pests, 
the  newspapers  of  the  day  being  full  of  accounts  relating  to  this 
public  calamity.  In  1753  Portugal  was  attacked  by  them.  This 
was  the  year  of  the  earthquake  of  Lisbon,  arid  all  sorts  of 
plagues  seemed  at  this  time  to  rage  furiously  in  that  unfortunate 
country. 

In  1780,  in  Transylvania,  their  ravages  assumed  such  gigantic 
proportions  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  call  in  the  assistance  of 
the  army.  Regiments  of  soldiers  gathered  them  together  and 
enclosed  them  in  sacks.  Fifteen  hundred  persons  were  employed 
in  crushing,  burying,  and  burning  them ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  this, 
their  number  did  not  seem  to  diminish  ;  but  a  cold  wind,  which 
fortunately  sprang  up,  caused  them  to  disappear.  In  the  fol- 
lowing spring  the  plague  broke  out  again,  and  every  one  turned 
out  to  fight  against  it.  The  locusts  were  swept  with  great 
brooms  into  ditches,  in  which  they  were  then  burnt ;  not, 
however,  before  they  had  ruined  the  whole  country.  Locusts 
showed  themselves  at  the  same  time  in  the  empire  of  Morocco, 
where  they  caused  a  fearful  famine.  The  poor  were  to  be  seen 
wandering  on  all  sides  digging  up  the  roots  of  vegetables,  and 
eagerly  devouring  camels'  dung,  in  hopes  of  finding  in  it  a  few 
undigested  grains  of  barley. 

Barrow  and  Levaillant,  in  their  travels  through  Central  Africa, 
speak  of  similar  calamities  having  happened  many  times  between 
1784  and  1797.  They  add  that  the  surface  of  the  rivers  was  then 
hidden  by  the  bodies  of  the  locusts,  which  covered  the  whole 
country. 

According  to  Jackson,  in  1739  they  covered  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  ground  from  Tangiers  to  Mogador.  All  the  region 
near  to  the  Sahara  was  ravaged,  whilst  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river  El  Klos  there  was  not  one  of  these  insects.  When  the  wind 


OKTHOPTEKA.  305 

blew  they  were  driven  into  the  sea,  and  their  carcases  occasioned 
a  plague  which  laid  Barbary  waste. 

India  and  China  often  fall  victims  to  these  destructive  insects. 
In  1735  clouds  of  locusts  hid  from  the  Chinese  both  the  sun  and 
moon.  Not  only  the  standing  crops,  but  also  the  corn  in  the 
barns  and  the  clothes  in  the  houses  being  devoured. 

In  the  south  of  France  locusts  multiply  sometimes  so  prodi- 
giously, that  in  a  very  short  time  many  barrels  may  be  filled  with 
their  eggs.  They  have  caused  at  different  periods  immense 
damage.  It  was  chiefly  in  the  years  1613,  1805,  1820,  1822, 
1824, 1825,  1832,  and  1834,  that  their  visits  to  the  south  of  France 
were  most  formidable. 

Mezeray  relates  that  in  the  month  of  January,  1613,  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIII.,  locusts  invaded  the  country  around  Aries.  In  seven 
or  eight  hours  the  wheat  and  crops  were  devoured  to  the  roots 
over  an  extent  of  country  of  15,000  acres.  They  then  crossed 
over  the  Rhine,  and  visited  Tarascon  and  Beaucaire,  where  they 
ate  the  vegetables  and  lucerne.  They  then  shifted  their  quarters 
to  Aramon,  to  Monfrin,  to  Yalabregues,  &c.,  where  they  were 
fortunately  destroyed  in  great  part  by  the  starlings  and  other 
insect-eating  birds,  which  flocked  in  innumerable  numbers  to  this 
game. 

The  consuls  of  Aries  and  of  Marseilles  caused  the  eggs  to  be 
collected.  Aries  spent,  for  this  object,  25,000  francs,  and  Mar- 
seilles 20,000  francs.  3,000  quintals  of  eggs  were  interred  or 
thrown  into  the  Rhone.  If  we  count  1,750,000  eggs  per  quintal, 
that  will  give  us  a  total  of  5,250,000,000  of  locusts  destroyed  in  the 
egg,  which  otherwise  would  have  very  soon  renewed  the  ravages  of 
which  the  country  had  so  lately  been  the  victim.  In  1822  were 
spent  again,  in  Provence,  2,227  francs  for  the  same  object.  In 
1825  were  spent  6,200  francs.  A  reward  of  50  centimes  was  given 
for  every  kilogramme  of  eggs,  and  half  the  sum  for  every  kilo- 
gramme of  insects.  The  eggs  collected  were  burnt,  or  else  crushed 
under  heavy  rollers.  The  gathering  was  entrusted  to  women  and 
children.  The  operation  consisted  in  dragging  along  the  ground 
great  sheets,  the  corners  of  which  were  held  up.  The  locusts  came 
and  settled  on  these,  and  were  caught  by  rolling  the  sheet  up. 

In  the  territory  of  Saint es- Maries,  situated  not  far  from  Aigues- 


306  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

Mortes,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  1,518  wheat  sacks  were  filled 
with  dead  locusts,  amounting  in  weight  to  68,861  kilogrammes,  and 
at  Aries  165  sacks,  or  6,600  kilogrammes.  The  rewards  given 
amounted  to  5,542  francs ;  but,  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  follow- 
ing year  the  locusts  caused  still  greater  damage. 

Locusts  are  always  to  be  found  in  Algeria,  in  the  provinces  of 
Oran,  Bona,  Algiers,  and  Bougia,  but  they  never  commit  those 
terrible  ravages  which  change  cultivated  countries  into  deserts. 
There  are  in  Algeria  years  of  locusts  as  there  are  with  us  years  of 
cockroaches,  of  blight,  of  caterpillars,  &c.  These  plagues  are 
fortunately  rare.  The  most  terrible  took  place  in  1845  and  in  1866. 
In  the  former  year  a  formidable  invasion  of  locusts  took  place.  It 
lasted  five  months,  from  March  to  July,  each  day  bringing  new 
bands  of  these  devastating  insects  ;  and  M.  Henry  Berthoud, 
then  in  Algeria,  saw  a  column  of  them,  whose  passage  began 
before  daylight,  and  had  scarcely  ended  at  four  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon.  Doctor  Guyon,  doctor  to  the  army,  and  corre- 
spondent of  the  Institute,  addressed  to  this  learned  body  an 
account  of  a  few  peculiarities  of  this  invasion,  of  which  he  was 
a  witness.  He  speaks  of  a  band  which  passed  on  the  16th  of 
March  over  the  plain  of  Sebdon,  going  in  the  direction  of  the 
desert  of  Angard.  Their  passage  lasted  three  hours.  The  locusts, 
having  found  nothing  to  devour  in  the  desert,  came  back  again, 
and  next  day  made  a  descent  upon  the  plain  of  Sebdon,  which 
is  30  kilometres  long,  by  12  to  15  kilometres  broad.  In  four 
hours  all  the  crops  were  devoured,  and  all  vegetation  destroyed. 
"  The  locusts/'  says  the  Doctor,  "  left  behind  them  an  infectious 
odour  of  putrid  herbs,  produced  by  their  excretions." 

At  Algiers,  in  the  Faubourg  Bab-Azoum,  they  penetrated  in 
masses  into  the  barley  stores,  and  there  was  the  greatest  difficulty 
in  driving  them  away,  great  barricades  being .  raised  before  the 
store-rooms  to  stop  the  invasion.  In  1845  they  penetrated  into 
the  pits  in  which  the  natives  preserve  their  wheat.  According 
to  the  report  of  the  Commandant  de  la  place  of  Philippeville, 
M.  Levaillant,  a  column  of  locusts  alighted  in  the  country  round 
about  that  town  on  the  18th  of  March,  1845,  which  extended 
from  30  to  40  centimetres,  and  the  locusts  were  found  heaped  upon 
the  ground  to  the  height  of  three  decimetres. 


OETHOPTEEA.  307 

In  the  environs  of  Algiers  alone  were  destroyed,  in  1845,  369 
quintals  of  locusts.  It  is  computed  that  four  hundred  locusts  go  to 
a  kilogramme.  This  gives,  then,  a  total  of  14,760,009  insects 
destroyed.  As  in  this  number  half  were  probably  females,  and  as 
each  female  lays  on  an  average  70  eggs,  the  result  we  arrive  at  is, 
that  this  stopped  the  production  of  516,600,000  larvaD  on  the  terri- 
tory of  Algiers  alone.  The  invasion  of  locusts  which  took  place 
in  1866  was  as  disastrous  as  that  of  1845.  It  was  in  the  month 
of  April,  1866,  that  the  vanguard  of  these  destructive  insects 
appeared.  Debouching  through  the  mountain  gorges  and 
through  the  valleys  into  the  fertile  plains  near  the  coast,  they 
alighted  first  on  the  plain  of  the  Mitidja  and  on  the  Sahel  of 
Algiers.  Their  mass,  at  certain  points,  intercepted  the  light 
of  the  sun,  and  resembled  those  whirlwinds  of  snow  which, 
during  the  storms  of  winter,  hide  the  nearest  objects  from  our 
view.  Yery  soon  the  cabbages,  the  oats,  the  barley,  the  late  wheat, 
and  the  market- gardeners'  plants  were  partly  destroyed.  In  some 
places  the  locusts  penetrated  into  the  interiors  of  the  houses.  By 
order  of  the  government  of  Algiers  the  troops  joined  the  colonists 
in  combating  the  plague ;  and  the  Arabs,  when  they  found  that  their 
interests  were  suffering,  rose  to  lend  their  aid  against  the  common 
enemy.  Immense  quantities  of  locusts  were  destroyed  in  a  few 
days ;  but  what  could  human  efforts  do  against  these  winged  mul- 
titudes, who  escape  into  space,  and  only  abandon  one  field  to  alight 
in  the  next  ? 

It  was  impossible  to  prevent  the  fecundation  of  these  insects. 
The  eggs  quickly  producing  innumerable  larvae,  the  first  swarms 
were  very  soon  not  only  replaced,  but  multiplied  a  hundredfold  by 
a  new  generation.  The  young  locusts  are  particularly  formidable 
on  account  of  their  voracity.  These  hungry  masses  threw  them- 
selves upon  everything  which  was  left  by  those  which  went  before 
them.  They  choked  up  the  springs,  the  canals,  and  the  brooks ; 
and  it  was  not  without  a  great  deal  of  trouble  that  the  waters  were 
cleared  of  these  causes  of  infection.  Almost  at  the  same  time  the 
provinces  of  Oran  and  of  Constantine  were  invaded.  At  Tlemcen, 
where  within  the  memory  of  man  locusts  had  never  appeared, 
the  ground  was  covered  with  them.  At  Sidi-bel- Abbes,  at  Sidi- 
Brahim,  at  Mostaganem,  they  attacked  the  tobacco,  the  vines,  the 

x2 


308  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

fig-trees,  and  even  the  olive-trees,  in  spite  of  the  bitterness  of 
their  foliage.  At  Relizane  and  at  L'Habra  they  attacked  the 
cotton-fields.  The  road,  80  kilometres  long,  which  connects  Mos- 
taganem  with  Mascara,  was  covered  to  the  whole  of  its  extent. 

In  the  province  of  Constantine  the  locusts  appeared  almost 
simultaneously,  from  the  Sahara  to  the  sea,  and  from  Bougia  to 
La  Calle.  At  Batna,  at  Setif,  at  Constantine,  at  Gruelma,  at  Bona, 
at  Philippeville,  at  Djidjelly,  the  inhabitants  struggled  with  energy 
against  this  invasion,  but  neither  fire  nor  any  obstacles  opposed 
to  the  advance  of  this  winged  army  were  able  to  stop  their 
ravages.  The  French  Government,  to  alleviate  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  ruin  which  was  thus  brought  upon  the  colony,  opened  a 
public  subscription  at  the  end  of  the  year  1866. 

The  negroes  of  Soudan  endeavour  to  frighten  the  locusts  in 
their  flight  by  savage  yells.  In  Hungary  they  employed  for  the 
same  object  the  noise  of  cannon.  In  the  middle  ages,  for  the 
want  of  cannon,  they  exorcised  the  locusts.  A  traveller  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  monk  Alvarez,  relates  that  he  also  employed 
exorcisms  against  an  immense  host  of  these  destructive  insects 
which  he  met  with  in  Ethiopia.  When  he  perceived  them,  he  made 
the  Portuguese  and  the  natives  form  in  procession,  and  ordered 
them  to  chant  psalms.  "  Thus  chanting,"  says  he,  "  we  went  into 
a  country  where  the  corn  was,  which  having  reached,  I  made  them 
catch  a  good  many  of  these  locusts,  to  whom  I  delivered  an 
adjuration,  which  I  carried  with  me  in  writing,  by  me  composed 
the  preceding  night,  summoning,  admonishing,  and  excommu- 
nicating them.  Then  I  charged  them  in  three  hours'  time  to 
depart  to  the  sea,  or  else  to  go  to  the  land  of  the  Moors,  leaving 
the  land  of  the  Christians.  On  their  refusal  of  which,  I  adjured 
and  convoked  all  the  birds  of  the  air,  animals  and  tempests,  to  dissi- 
pate, destroy,  and  devour  them ;  and  for  this  admonition  I  had  a 
certain  quantity  of  these  locusts  seized,  and  pronouncing  these 
words  in  their  presence,  that  they  might  not  be  ignorant  of  them, 
I  let  them  go,  so  that  they  might  tell  the  rest."  If  one  reflects 
that  on  their  arrival  in  the  land  of  the  Moors,  these  same  locusts 
were  perhaps  received  by  prayers  which  had  for  their  object  to 
send  them  back  to  the  land  of  the  Christians,  they  must  have 
been  very  much  embarrassed  by  such  contradictory  adjurations. 


OETHOPTEEA.  309 

The  Arabs  have  also  an  infallible  means  of  ridding  themselves  of 
the  locusts.  Here  is  what  General  Daumas  tells  us  on  the  subject. 
According  to  Ben- Omar,  the  Prophet  read  one  day,  on  the  wings 
of  a  locust,  written  in  Hebrew  characters :  "  We  are  the  troops 
of  the  Most  High  God ;  we  each  one  lay  ninety-nine  eggs.  If  we 
were  to  lay  a  hundred  we  should  devastate  the  whole  world/' 
Upon  which  Mahomet,  greatly  alarmed,  made  an  ardent  prater, 
in  which  he  begged  God  to  destroy  these  enemies  of  Mussulmans. 
In  answer  to  this  invocation,  the  angel  Gabriel  told  Mahomet 
that  a  part  of  his  prayer  should  be  granted.  Since  that  epoch, 
indeed,  words  of  invocation  to  the  Prophet,  written  on  a  piece  of 
paper,  and  enclosed  in  a  reed,  which  is  planted  in  the  middle  of  a 
wheat-field  or  orchard,  have  the  power  of  turning  away  the  locusts.* 
This  receipt  is  infallible,  at  least  so  say  the  devout  Mussulmans. 

There  exists  another  quite  as  efficacious.  They  take  four  locusts, 
and  write  on  the  wings  of  each  a  verse  of  the  Koran  (four  verses 
of  the  Koran  are  appropriated  to  this  purpose).  They  then  let 
the  locusts  thus  marked  fly  into  the  midst  of  the  swarm,  and  the 
flying  army  immediately  takes  another  direction. 

By  what  the  Arabs  say,  the  locusts  possess  a  number  of  virtues. 
When  you  see  them  in  a  dream,  they  announce  the  future  ;  if  you 
dream  that  you  are  eating  them,  it  is  a  good  omen ;  if  you  dream 
that  it  rains  golden  locusts,  God  will  restore  to  you  that  which 
you  have  lost,  &c.  When  Omar-ben-el-Khottal  was  Caliph,  the 
locusts  seemed  to  have  completely  disappeared.  There  was  great 
sadness  in  the  country  in  consequence.  The  Caliph  especially 
was  very  much  afflicted  at  it.  He  sent  carriers  into  Yemen,  into 
Cham,  and  into  Irak,  to  see  if  they  could  not  find  a  few.  One 
of  the  envoyes  succeeded  in  his  mission,  and  brought  back  a 
handful  of  locusts.  "  God  is  great !  "  cried  Omar,  who  from 
that  day  had  no  more  misgivings.  In  order  to  understand  first 
the  despair  and  then  the  satisfaction  of  the  Caliph  Omar,  it  is 
written,  so  say  the  Mussulmans,  that  the  human  race  will  dis- 
appear from  the  earth  after  the  extinction  of  the  locusts.  That 
these  insects  were  formed  of  the  rest  of  the  clay  out  of  which  man 
had  been  formed,  and  that  they  were  destined  to  serve  him  as  food. 

*  "  Le  Grand  Desert,"  par  le  General  E.  Daumas  et  E.  de  Chaucel,  in  18mo.  Paris. 
1860. 


310  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

And  so  locusts  and  fish  are  the  only  creatures  which  God  allows 
the  Mussulman  to  eat  without  being  skinned.  They  must,  how- 
ever, have  been  killed  by  one  of  the  faithful,  for  otherwise  their 
flesh  is  impure !  The  Arabs  eat,  and  are  very  fond  of  locusts. 
When  he  was  asked  his  opinion  on  this  article  of  food,  the  Caliph 
Omar-ben- el-Khottal  said  :  "  I  only  wish  I  had  a  basket  full  of 
them,  wouldn't  I  scrunch  them  !  " 

According  to  General  Daumas,  locusts,  fresh  or  preserved,  are 
good  food  for  both  men  and  camels.  They  are  eaten  grilled  or 
boiled,  or  prepared  in  the  kous-koussou,  after  their  legs,  wings, 
and  heads  have  been  taken  off.  Sometimes  they  are  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  reduced  to  powder,  which  is  mixed  with  milk,  and  made 
into  cakes  with  flour,  dripping,  or  butter  and  salt.  Camels  are  very 
fond  of  them;  and  they  are  given  to  them  after  having  been 
dried,  or  roasted  between  two  layers  of  ashes.  Dried  and  salted, 
they  are  in  Asia  and  in  Africa  an  object  of  commerce.  At  Bag- 
dad they  sometimes  cause  the  price  of  meat  to  fall.  The  taste  of 
their  flesh  may  be  compared  to  that  of  the  crab.  Eastern  nations 
have  eaten  locusts  from  time  immemorial.  The  Greek  comic  poet 
Aristophanes  tells  us,  in  the  "  Acharnians,"  that  the  Greeks  sold 
them  in  the  markets.  Moses  allowed  to  the  Jews  four  species, 
which  are  mentioned  in  Leviticus.  Saint  John  the  Baptist,  fol- 
lowing the  example  of  the  prophet  Amos,  made  them  his  food 
in  the  desert,  where  he  found  nothing  but  locusts  and  a  little 
honey.  The  wholesomeness  of  this  food  was,  however,  disputed 
among  the  ancients.  Strabo  relates  that  there  existed  on  the  borders 
of  the  gulf  of  Arabia,  a  people  called  by  him  Acridophagi,  or 
Locust-eating  people ;  but  that  they  all  came  to  a  miserable  end. 
These  people  procured  for  themselves  locusts  by  lighting  great 
fires,  when  the  equinoctial  winds  brought  these  hosts.  Blinded 
and  suffocated  by  the  smoke,  the  locusts  fell  to  the  ground,  and 
were  picked  up  greedily  by  them,  and  eaten,  fresh  or  salted. 
"  These  locust-eaters,"  says  Strabo,  "  are,  it  is  true,  active  good 
runners ;  but  their  life  never  exceeds  forty  years !  As  they 
approach  this  age,  a  horrible  vermin  issues  from  their  bodies, 
which  eats  them  up,  beginning  from  the  belly,  and  so  they  die 
a  miserable  death."  The  same  tale  is  to  be  met  with  in  a  descrip- 
tion of  Admiral  Drake's  voyage  round  the  world.  This  traveller 


OETHOPTEEA.  311 

speaks  of  the  natives  of  Ethiopia,  who  live  on  locusts,  as  dying 
eaten  up  by  winged  insects  bred  in  their  own  bodies. 

It  is  difficult  to  explain  the  origin  of  such  fables.  Travellers 
who  have  visited  Arabia  agree  in  declaring  that  the  locust  is  a 
most  wholesome  article  of  food  ;  that  it  is  even  fattening.  At  any 
rate,. it  is  good  food  for  cattle  and  poultry.  The  ancients  employed 
locusts  in  medicine.  Dioscorides  asserts  that  the  thighs  of  the 
locust,  reduced  to  powder,  and  mixed  with  the  blood  of  the  he- 
goat,  is  a  cure  for  leprosy ;  and  mixed  with  wine,  is  a  specific 
against  the  bite  of  the  scorpion,  &c. 

It  remains  for  us  to  describe  some  other  species  of  grasshoppers 
less  destructive  in  their  ravages  than  the  Acrydium  moratorium. 

In  the  deserts  of  Egypt  is  to  be  met  with  the  great  Eremobia, 
and  in  South  America  the  Ommexa,  which  walks  rather  than 
springs.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Tetrix  springs  very  well.  A 
remarkable  feature  about  them  is  their  thorax,  which  is  prolonged 
into  a  point,  and  covers  the  whole  body.  They  are  small  insects 
of  gay  and  brilliant  colours,  and  generally  remain  on  the  leaves  of 
low  .plants,  and  escape  easily  from  the  hand  that  tries  to  catch 
them.  The  Tetrix  subulatay  of  a  brownish  colour,  is  common 
during  spring,  in  the  environs  of  Paris,  in  the  woods,  and  in 
dry  and  arid  fields.  The  Pneumorce  are  very  strange  insects. 
The  males  have  a  very  prominent  abdomen,  which  resembles  a 
bladder,  filled  with  air  ;  and  their  wings  are  very  much  developed. 
The  females  have  the  abdomen  of  the  ordinary  shape  ;  their  wings 
are  very  short,  or  even  quite  rudimentary.  The  former  produce 
a  sharp  stridulation,  by  rubbing  their  hind-legs  against  a  row  of 
small  tubercules,  which  are  to  be  seen  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen. 
The  sound  is  rendered  still  more  penetrating  by  the  vesiculous  or 
bladder-like  abdomen,  the  skin  of  which  is  stretched  as  tight  as 
a  drum.  The  Pneumorce  inhabit  the  South  of  Africa,  as  also  do  the 
Truxales,  a  few  varieties  of  which,  however,  are  to  be  met  with 
in  Spain,  Sicily,  and  the  South  of  France. 

We  will  pass  in  silence  over  a  great  number  of  other  less  in- 
teresting species  of  Orthoptera.  Those  which  we  have  described 
suffice  to  justify  us  in  what  we  said  above,  namely,  that  this  order 
contains  insects  of  the  strangest  and  most  anomalous  forms. 


VI. 
HYMENOPTEEA. 

THE  Order  Hymenoptera  comprises  those  insects  which  have 
four  naked  membranous  wings,  lying  in  repose  horizontally  upon 
the  body,  and  intersected  by  a  network  of  nerves.  The  name  is 
derived  from  two  Greek  words — vpriv,  a  membrane,  and  TTTepov, 
a  wing.  The  mouth  is  composed  of  two  horny  mandibles,  jaws, 
and  lips  adapted  for  suction. 

It  is  amongst  the  Hymenoptera  that  we  meet  with  the  most 
industrious  insects,  some  of  which  seem  to  possess  real  intelligence. 
These  little  animals  offer  the  most  admirable  examples  of  socia- 
bility. Born  architects,  they  construct  dwellings  marvellously 
contrived,  which  serve  them,  at  the  same  time,  as  nurseries  in 
which  to  rear  their  progeny,  and  storehouses  in  which  to  lay  by 
their  provisions.  Nothing  can  equal  the  solicitude  with  which 
they  watch  over  their  young  larvae,  still  incapable  of  motion. 
They  form  republics,  governed  by  immutable  laws,  and  make 
war  against  their  enemies  in  order  of  battle.  They  have  predilec- 
tions or  antipathies  for  those  who  court  their  society,  on  account 
of  the  material  advantages  they  derive  from  them. 

The  Bees,  the  Humble  Bees,  the  Wasps,  and  the  Ants,  are  the 
best  known  types  of  this  order  of  insects.  Among  the  greater 
number  of  the  Hymenoptera,  the  females  are  armed  with  a  sting 
or  lancet,  a  wound  from  which  causes  great  pain.  All  these 
insects  undergo  complete  metamorphoses.  In  the  larva  state 
they  are  incapable  of  motion  and  of  obtaining  food ;  but  nature 
has  provided  in  different  ways  for  their  preservation.  They  are  often 
lodged  and  fed  by  the  workers  of  the  tribe,  unfruitful  females, 
which,  with  a  self-denial  very  rare  in  nature,  seem  to  have  no  other 


HYMENOPTEEA.  313 

vocation  than  to  sacrifice  themselves  to  the  welfare  of  the  larvae. 
The  workers  construct  the  nest  and  bring  in  the  provisions.  This 
is  the  case  with  some  bees,  wasps,  and  ants. 

Some  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  bodies  of  other  insects,  which  die 
immediately  the  larvae  which  live  in  them  have  attained  their  full 
development.  The  larvae  of  the  ChalcidicB  and  of  the  Ichneumon  fur- 
nish examples  of  Hymenoptera  which  inhabit  the  interior  of  the  body 
of  another  insect.  Other  parasitical  species  carry  on  their  depre- 
dations in  a  different  way.  They  content  themselves  with  laying 
their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  species  of  the  Order,  which  have  the 
advantage  over  them  in  being  able  to  construct  for  themselves  places 
of  refuge.  Their  larvae  live  thus  on  their  neighbours'  goods,  nourish- 
ing themselves  on  the  provisions  which  were  laid  up  for  others.  In 
this  way  live  the  Cleptes,  the  Chrysides,  &c.  Lastly,  others,  such 
as  the  Gall -insects,  and  the  Tentkredineta,  or  Saw-flies,  live  in  their 
first  state  exposed  on  plants,  and  feed  upon  their  leaves. 

We  shall  only  here  describe  the  principal  families  of  the  Order 
Hymenoptera,  which  contains  a  considerable  number  of  species. 
These  families  will  be — 1st.  The  Apiariae,  containing  the  Honey 
Bees ;  the  Melipona,  and  the  Humble  Bees.  2nd.  The  Vespiarine,  or 
Wasps.  3rd.  The  Formicarue,  or  Ants.  4th.  The  Gallicolce,  or 
Gall-insects. 

BEES. — Man,  from  the  very  earliest  age,  before  any  civilisation 
existed,  knew  the  value  of  bees,  and  took  advantage  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  these  industrious  insects.  The  Bible  makes  mention 
of  bees.  Their  Hebrew  name  is  Deborah.  The  Greeks  called 
them  by  the  name  of  Melissa,  or  Melitta. 

Their  wonderful  architectural  powers,  their  economical  fore- 
thought, the  wonderful  combination  of  their  reasonings,  which 
denote  a  real  intelligence,  their  admirable  social  organization, 
have  in  all  times  fixed  the  attention  of  naturalists,  as  they  have 
also  that  of  poets  and  thinkers.  Virgil  has  celebrated  them. 
In  the  fourth  book  of  "his  Georgics,  the  Latin  poet  has  summed 
up  all  that  the  ancients  knew  about  bees.  He  paints  with  a  good 
deal  of  truth  many  traits  in  their  history,  points  out  their  enemies, 
and  sets  forth  with  accuracy  all  the  care  that  should  be  taken  of 
them.  In  the  words  of  the  Mantuan  poet,  they  are  heavenly 
gifts,  dona  ccelestia,  and  their  intelligence  excited  his  admiration : — 


314  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

"  His  quibus  signis  atque  base  exempla  secuti, 
Esse  apibus  partem  divinae  mentis,  et  haustus 
.ZEtbereos  dixere."  .... 

Let  us  hasten  to  say,  however,  that  all  which  the  ancients, 
naturalists  or  poets,  Greek  or  Latin,  relate  on  the  subject  of  bees, 
is  a  mixture  of  truth  and  error,  and  rests  generally  on  mere 
suppositions.  Aristotle  knew  well  the  three  sorts  of  insects  which 
are  comprised  under  the  title  of  bees,  and  some  other  principal 
facts  relating  to  their  history ;  but  these  facts  are  not  stated 
accurately  and  precisely  in  his  account  of  them,  and  they  are,  above 
all,  misinterpreted.  The  Greek  philosopher  understood  insects  in 
general  very  badly.  He  made  them  spring  from  the  leaves  of 
trees,  and  brought  forward  a  multitude  of  errors  about  them,  which 
the  most  simple  observation  would  have  sufficed  to  dissipate. 
Pliny  tells  us  that  Aristomachus  of  Soles  consecrated  fifty-eight 
years  to  the  observation  of  the  habits  of  the  bee,  and  that  Philiscus 
of  Thrace  passed,  for  the  same  motive,  all  his  life  in  the  forests. 
But  this  devotion  to  one  object  does  not  appear  to  have  produced 
much  result,  if  one  compares  the  discoveries  of  our  own  age  with 
the  errors  which  Pliny,  Aristotle,  and  Columella  have  chronicled 
respecting  them.  Pliny  says  that  bees  occupy  the  first  rank  among 
insects,  and  that  they  were  created  for  man,  for  whom  their 
work  procures  honey  and  wax.  He  adds  that  they  form  political 
associations,  that  they  have  councils,  chiefs,  and  even  a  code  of 
morality  and  principles. 

One  sees  by  this  opinion  of  the  Roman  naturalist  in  what  high 
esteem  the  ancients  held  bees.  But  they  had  the  most  singular 
ideas  on  the  reproduction  of  these  little  beings,  and  as  no  one 
had  ever  seen 'their  generation,  they  invented  fable  after  fable 
to  explain  their  origin.  Some  pretended  that  bees  sprang  from  an 
ox  recently  killed,  and  buried  in  manure.  Others  added  that  they 
only  sprang  into  existence  from  the  chest  of  a  young  ox  killed 
with  violence.  The  most  courageous  bees'  came  from  the  belly  of 
a  lion  in  a  state  of  putrefaction.  It  was  from  the  head  of  this 
same  animal,  in  a  state  of  corruption,  that  the  kings  (i.  e.  the 
queens]  were  formed.  The  carcases  of  cows  furnished  the  mild  and 
tractable  bees ;  a  calf  could  only  furnish  small  and  weak  ones. 
Other  naturalists,  or  rather  other  dreamers,  made  these  insects 


HYMENOPTEEA.  315 

spring  from  the  calices  of  sweet-scented  flowers.  Combined  and 
separated  in  a  certain  manner,  the  flowers  engendered  bees.  They 
said,  further,  that  the  bees  sought  on  the  blossoms  of  the  olive  trees 
and  of  the  reed  a  seed  which  they  rendered  fit  for  the  formation 
of  their  larvae. 

All  these  fables,  which  sprang  from  the  imagination  of  the 
ancients,  were  developed  by  a  writer  of  the  Renaissance,  a  certain 
Alexander  de  Montfort,  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Printemps  de 
1'Abeille."  If  we  were  to  believe  him,  the  king  of  the  bees  is 
formed  of  the  juice  which  the  workers  extract  from  plants.  These 
latter  are  created  from  honey ;  and  the  tyrants,  i.  e.  the  females, 
which  do  not  manage  to  become  sovereigns  of  a  hive,  are  formed 
only  of  gum.  It  will  be  seen  that  he  had  profited  only  too  well 
by  what  he  had  read  in  Greek  and  Roman  authors. 

The  bee  was  very  much  thought  of  in  ancient  Egypt,  and  is 
often  represented  on  their  monuments,  above  the  sculptured  orna- 
ments which  contain  proper  names,  with  two  semicircles  and  a 
sort  of  sheaf  or  fasciculus.  Champollion  Figeac  thinks  that  this 
group,  taken  together,  represents  a  title  added  to  a  proper 
name.  According  to  Hor-Apollon,  another  commentator  on 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  the  bee  in  the  country  of  the  Pharaohs 
was  the  emblem  of  a  people  sweetly  submissive  to  the  orders  of 
its  king.  Nothing  can  be  better  than  this  comparison.  It  was 
for  this  reason,  no  doubt,  that  Napoleon  I.  sprinkled  the  sym- 
bolical bees  over  the  imperial  mantle  which  bears  the  arms  of  his 
dynasty. 

All  the  fables,  all  the  hypotheses,  spread  about  and  cherished 
by  the  ancients  respecting  these  industrious  little  insects,  were 
dissipated  in  a  moment  when,  by  the  invention  of  glass  beehives, 
first  made  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  by  Maraldi,  a 
mathematician  of  Nice,  we  were  enabled  to  observe  their  opera- 
tions and  habits.  It  is  from  this  period  only  that  our  exact 
knowledge  of  the  really  wonderful  life  of  these  insects  dates. 
Before  Maraldi,  the  Dutch  naturalist,  Swammerdam,  had  written 
an  excellent  History  of  Bees.  He  died  before  he  had  published 
his  work,  and  when,  a  long  while  after  his  death,  it  was  at  length 
printed,  other  investigators  had  already  pushed  on  their  observa- 
tions further  than  he  had.  Thanks  to  the  invention  of  Maraldi, 


316  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

Be*aumur,  John  Hunter,  Schirach,  and  Francis  Huber,  had 
unveiled,  by  their  admirable  researches,  the  wonderful  habits  of 
these  insects.  The  discoveries  of  Francis  Huber  seem  to  be  almost 
miraculous,  when  we  remember  that  this  observer  was  blind  from 
the  age  of  seventeen. 

Deprived  of  sight,  Francis  Huber  did  not  the  less  wish  to  conse- 
crate his  life  to  the  observation  and  the  study  of  nature.  He 
caused  the  best  works  of  his  day  on  natural  history  and  physics  to 
be  read  to  him,  his  usual  reader  being  his  servant,  named  Francis 
Burnens,  a  native  of  the  Pays  de  Yaud.  The  honest  Burnens  took 
a  singular  interest  in  all  he  read,  and  showed  by  his  judicious 
reflections  the-  true  talent  of  an  observer,  and  Huber  resolved  to 
cultivate  this  talent.  Very  soon  he  could  place  implicit  reliance 
in  his  companion,  and  see  with  another's  eyes  as  if  they  were  his 
own. 

The  two  naturalists  (we  do  not  hesitate  to  give  this  title  to  the 
poor  peasant  of  the  canton  of  Yaud,  who  so  well  seconded  his 
master  in  his  long  hours  of  study)  conceived  a  host  of  original 
experiments,  which  led  them  to  discover  truths  which  no  one  up 
to  that  time  had  dreamt  of.  The  results  of  their  researches  were 
published,  in  1789,  in  a  volume  which  produced  a  profound  sensa- 
tion among  naturalists.*  Burnens  was  at  a  later  period  called 
back  to  the  bosom  of  his  family,  and  invested  by  his  fellow-citizens 
with  important  functions.  Francis  Huber  then  continued  his 
observations  through  the  eyes  of  the  excellent  wife  he  had  married. 
A  second  volume  was  thus  composed  by  him  twenty  years  after 
the  appearance  of  the  first.  This  volume  was  published  by  his 
son,  Pierre  Huber,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  admirable 
researches  concerning  ants,  of  which  we  shall  have  to  speak 
further  on. 

"We  will  now  speak  of  the  habits  of  bees.  The  labours  of 
Reaumur,  of  Schirach,  and  of  Huber,  have  perfectly  revealed  them 
to  us,  and  have  initiated  us  completely  into  the  habits  of  these 
precious  insects,  which  are  for  us,  to  a  certain  extent,  domestic 
animals.  We  will  begin  by  describing  the  Common  Bee  (Apis 
mellifica). 

*  "Nouvelles  Observations  sur  Its  Abeilles,"  par  Francois  Huber.  Paris  et 
Geneve,  in  8™ .  2e  edition.  1814. 


r 


HYMENOPTEBA. 


317 


During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  population  of  our  hives 
s  composed  exclusively  of  two  sorts  of  individuals — the  female,  or 
nother  bee,  called  also  the  queen  bee  ;  and  the  working  bees,  or 
leuters,  which  are,  properly  speaking,  females  incompletely  deve- 
oped.  A  third  kind  of  individuals,  the  males,  called  also  drones, 
ire  generally  not  met  with  except  from  May  to  July. 

The  working  bees  are  the  people,  the  crowd,  the  servum  pecus, 
;he  living  force,  the  bee  community.     They  are 
•ecognised   by   their   small  size,    reddish   brown 
colour,  and,  above  all,  by  the  palettes  and  brushes 
vith  which  the  hind-legs  are  furnished. 

The  three  pairs  of  legs  which  are  inserted  in  its  Fio. 
;horax  are  its  tools.  The  two  hind- legs  are 
onger  than  the  four  front  legs,  and  present  on  the  exterior  a 
;riangular  depression,  resembling  a  palette,  which  is  surrounded 
?y  stiff  hairs,  forming,  as  it  were,  the  borders  of  a  sort  of  basket, 
n  which  the  insect  deposits  the  pollen  of  flowers.  The  broadest 
Dart  of  the  leg  articulates  with  the  tarsus,  which  is  of  a  square 
:orm,  smooth  on  the  exterior,  and  having  hairs  on  its  interior 


309. — Working  Lee 
(Apis  mellifica  j. 


Fig.  310.— Leg  of  a  Bee  (magnified.) 


Fig.  311.- 


magmfied). 


surface,  which  has  caused  it  to  be  named  the  brush.  The  joint 
s  used  for  gathering  the  pollen ;  it  folds  back  on  the  leg 
(_Fig.  310).  and  forms  with  it  a  sort  of  small  pair  of  pincers  ;  and, 
finally,  the  leg  is  terminated  by  five  smaller  articulations,  the  last 


318 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


of  which  is  armed  with  hooks.  The  other  tools  of  the  working  bee 
consist  of  a  pair  of  movable  mandibles,  which  close  the  mouth  on 
its  two  sides,  and  of  a  trunk  or  proboscis  (Fig.  31 1),  which  may 
be  considered  as  a  sort  of  tongue. 

"With  its  mandibles  the  working  bee  seizes  any  hard  substance. 
The  trunk  serves  it  to  collect  the  juice  lying  on  the  surface  of 
the  petals,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  corolla  of  the  flower.  When 
a  be^  V  T^settled  on  a  full-blown  flower,  it  is  seen  immediately 
m  •  for  the  interior  of  the  corolla,  put  out  its  trunk,  and 
the  /petals  ;  it  lengthens  it,  shortens  it,  and  twists  and 

nds  it  in  pll  directions.  When  the  hairy  surface  of  this 
organ  is  covered  with  vegetable  juice,  the  bee  returns  it  to  its 
mouth,  and  deposits  its  booty  in  a  conduit,  whence  the  juice 
passes  into  its  first  stomach.  This  trunk  is  then,  in  all  re- 
spects, a  tongue,  with  which  the  bee  sucks,  licks,  and  pumps  up 
the  honey  of  flowers.  But  it  also  gathers  the  pollen.  When 
it  enters  a  flower  the  bee  covers  itself  with  pollen  from  head  to 
foot,  and  then  passing  its  brushes  carefully  over  its  whole  body, 
removes  the  dust  which  adheres  to  it  in  every  part,  and  piles  it 
up  on  the  triangular  palettes  of  its  hind-legs,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  form  balls  of  greater  or  less  size.  If  the  flower  is  not  quite  full 
blown,  the  bee  makes  use  of  its  mandibles  to  open  the  anthers, 
in  which  case  the  front  pair  of  legs  transmit  the  booty  to  the 
second  pair,  which  store  them  in  the  baskets  of  the  third. 
When  it  has  gathered  as  much  as  it  can  carry,  the  bee  returns 
to  the  hive,  its  legs  laden  with  pollen. 


Fig.  312.— Male,  or  Drone 
(Apis  mellifica). 


Fig.  313  — Female,  or  Queen 
(Apis  mellifica). 


This  complete  set  of  tools  which  we  have  just  described  is  only 
to  be  met  with  among  the  working  bees.  The  males  or  drones 
(Fig.  312),  larger  and  more  hairy  than  the  working  bees,  emitting 


HYMENOPTEKA.  319 

a  sonorous  and  buzzing  sound,  have  no  palettes  on  their  legs,  the 
hairs  of  their  brushes  are  not  appropriated  to  the  work  of  gather- 
ing, their  mandibles  are  shorter,  and  they  have  no  aculeis,  or 
sting,  which  is  the  working  bee's  weapon. 

The  female,  or  queen  (Fig.  313),  is  smaller  than  the  male,  and 
has  a  longer  body  than  the  working  bees,  and  the  wings,  shorter 
in  proportion,  cover  only  the  half  of  its  body,  whereas  with  the 
other  bees  they  cover  it  entirely.  The  only  part  she  has  to 
play  is  that  of  laying  eggs,  and  so  she  has  no  palettes  and 
brushes.  The  sovereign  is,  as  suits  her  supreme  rank,  exempted 
from  all  work.  She  is  always  escorted  by  a  certain  number  of 
working  bees,  who  brush  her,  lick  her,  present  honey  to  her  with 
their  trunks,  save  her  every  kind  of  fatigue,  and  compose  a  train 
worthy  of  her  feminine  majesty.  One  very  remarkable  fact  is 
that  only  one  queen  lives  in  each  hive.  Perfect  sovereign  of  this 
tiny  state,  she  rules  over  a  people  of  some  thousands  of  workers. 
It  is  not  rare  to  find  twenty  thousand  working  bees  in  a  hive, 
and  all  submissively  obey  their  sovereign.  The  number  of  males 
is  scarcely  one-tenth  part  of  that  of  the  working  bees  ;  and  they 
only  live  about  three  months.  The  workers  represent  the  active 
life  of  the  community. 

"  The  exterior  of  a  hive,"  says  M.  Victor  Rendre,  "  gives  the 
best  idea  of  this  people,  essentially  laborious.  From  sun-rise  to 
sunset,  all  is  movement,  diligence,  bustle ;  it  is  an  incessant  series 
of  goings  and  comings,  of  various  operations  which  begin,  con- 
tinue, and  end,  to  be  recommenced.  Hundreds  of  bees  arrive 
from  the  fields,  laden  with  materials  and  provisions  ;  others  cross 
them  and  go  in  their  turn  into  the  country.  Here,  cautious 
sentinels  scrutinise  every  fresh  arrival ;  there,  purveyors,  in  a 
hurry  to  be  back  at  work  again,  stop  at  the  entrance  to  the  hive, 
where  other  bees  unload  them  of  their  burdens ;  elsewhere  it  is  a 
working  bee  which  engages  in  a  hand-to-hand  encounter  with  a  rash 
stranger  ;  further  on  the  surveyors  of  the  hive  clear  it  of  every- 
thing which  might  interfere  with  the  traffic  or  be  prejudicial  to 
health  ;  at  another  point  the  workers  are  occupied  in  drawing  out 
the  dead  body  of  one  of  their  companions  ;  all  the  outlets  are 
besieged  by  a  crowd  of  bees  coming  in  and  going  out,  the  doors 
hardly  suffice  for  this  hurrying  busy  multitude.  All  appears 


320  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

disorder  and  confusion  at  the  approaches  to  the  hive,  but  this 
tumult  is  only  so  in  appearance ;  an  admirable  order  presides  over 
this  emulation  in  their  work,  which  is  the  distinctive  feature  in 
bees."*  A  very  simple  calculation  may  serve  to  give  us  an  idea  of 
this  prodigious  activity.  The  opening  of  a  well-stocked  hive  gives 
passage  to  one  hundred  bees  a  minute,  which  makes,  from  five 
o'clock  in  the  morning  till  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening,  eighty 
thousand  re-entrances,  or  four  excursions  for  each  bee,  supposing 
there  is  a  population  of  twenty  thousand  workers. 

Let  us  now  follow  their  occupations  from  the  moment  in  which 
they  establish  themselves  in  a  hive.  The  workers  begin  by 
stopping  up  all  the  openings  except  one  door,  which  is  always  to 
remain  open.  A  certain  number  set  out  to  look  for  a  resinous  and 
sweet-scented  substance  known  under  the  name  of  propolis,  which 
is  destined  to  cover  the  inner  surface  of  the  hive,  as  its  name 
shows,  which  is  derived  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  out- skirts 
or  suburb.  Huber  asserts  that  it  is  gathered  from  the  buds 
of  plants.  This  substance  has  not  yet  been  employed  in  the  arts, 
although  it  possesses  the  same  qualities  as  wax,  as  M.  de  Frariere 
remarks  in  his  work  on  Bees  and  Bee-keeping. f  The  propolis  is 
employed  in  Italy  for  making  blisters.  This  gum  is  viscous  and 
very  adherent.  The  bee  works  it  up  into  balls,  and  carries  it, 
in  this  form,  to  the  hive,  where  other  labourers  take  possession 
of  it.  They  seize  the  pellet  with  their  mandibles,  and  apply 
it  to  cracks  which  they  have  to  make  air-tight.  They  use 
the  propolis  for  another  purpose  still,  which  deserves  to  be  men- 
tioned. 

It  happens  sometimes  that  an  enemy  penetrates  into  their 
hive,  and  that  the  bees  are  not  strong  enough  to  cast  this  in- 
truder out  of  their  dwelling.  What  do  they  do  ?  As  soon  as 
they  have  discovered  the  invasion  of  their  domicile,  they  set 
upon  the  impudent  intruder,  and  sting  him  to  death.  But 
how  can  they  drag  out  the  dead  body,  which  is  often  very  heavy  ? 
Such,  for  instance,  as  a  slug.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be 
dangerous  to  abandon  its  carcass  in  the  midst  of  the  hive. 
A  Roman  Emperor  said  that  the  dead  bodies  of  our  enemies 

*  L' Intelligence  des  Betes.     In  18mo.     Paris,  1864. 

f  Sur  les  Abeilles  et  1' Apiculture.     In  18mo.     2e  edition.     Paris. 


HYMENOPTERA.  321 

always  smelt  good.  This  is  not  the  opinion  of  the  bees.  They 
know  that  if  they  abandoned  the  carcass  in  the  hive  it  would  infect 
the  place,  to  the  great  danger  of  their  health.  They  therefore 
embalm,  it.  They  encase  it  in  propolis,  which  preserves  it  from 
putrefaction.  It  is  said  that  the  art  of  embalming  was  practised 
for  the  first  time  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  It  is  an  error  ;  the 
first  inventors  of  this  art  were  bees. 

If,  instead  of  a  slug,  it  is  a  snail  whose  evil  genius  has  conducted 
it  into  the  interior  of  a  beehive,  the  proceeding  is  more  simple. 
The  moment  he  has  received  one  sting,  the  snail  retires  under  the 
protecting  roof  of  his  movable  house.  The  bees  thereupon  at  once 
wall  him  in  by  closing  the  opening  to  his  shell  with  this  material. 
The  shell  is  then  cemented  to  the  floor  of  the  hive,  and  the  house 
of  the  poor  mollusc,  become  its  tomb,  remains  thus  in  the  midst  of 
the  hive  as  a  sort  of  decorative  tumulus.  When  the  sides  of  the 
hive  are  well  closed,  the  bees  lay  the  foundations  of  their  nest, 

It  was  not  formerly  so  easy  to  observe  the  details  of  the  work 
done  by  the  bees  as  it  is  at  the  present  day  ;  for  these  insects, 
once  in  their  hives,  have  a  great  aversion  to  the  light.  If  they  are 
put  into  a  glazed  hive,  their  first  care  is  to  shut  up  all  the  windows, 
either  by  plastering  them  over  with  propolis,  or  by  forming,  by 
means  of  the  well-marshalled  battalion  of  working  bees,  a  sort  of 
living  curtain.  In  order  to  be  able  to  take  them  unawares,  and 
study  them  at  his  own  convenience,  Huber  constructed  a  hive  with 
leaves,  which  opened  like  a  book.  Fig.  314,  which  represents  the 
hive  with  leaves,  which  is  sometimes  used,  gives  an  idea  of  the 
plan  adopted  by  Huber  in  order  to  enable  him  at  will  to  open  the 
hive  and  surprise  its  inmates.  Huber  had  also  recourse  in  cer- 
tain cases  to  a  glass  cage  placed  in  the  interior  of  the  hive,  and 
which  he  could  easily  move  to  the  light. 

Thanks  to  his  ingenuity,  Huber  was  able  to  follow  the  working 
bees  in  all  the  various  phases  of  their  labours.  When  they  begin 
to  construct  their  hive  they  divide  the  work  among  themselves. 
A  first  detachment  is  employed  to  gather  the  wax,  which  is  the 
building  stone  of  our  little  architects.  It  was  thought  for  a  long 
time  that  wax  was  solely  the  pollen  of  flowers,  elaborated  in  the 
stomach  of  the  bees,  and  then  disgorged  by  the  mouth.  It  was 
reserved  for  a  peasant  of  Lusac  to  be  the  first  to  discover  the 

Y 


322 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


true  nature  of  this  secretion.  This  observer,  who  did  not  belong 
to  any  school,  or  at  most  belonged  to  Nature's  school,  found  the 
flakes  of  wax  sticking  between  the  lower  arches  of  the  rings  of 


Fig.  314. — Beehive  in  leaves. 


the  abdomen  or  belly  of  the  working  bee.     The  wax,  then,  is  pro- 
duced by  the  insect  by  exudation,  and  is  not  simply  the  pollen 


Fig.  315. — Bee  seen  through  a  magnifying  glass  at  the  moment  when  the  plates  of  wax  appear  between 
the  segments  of  the  abdomen. 

gathered  from  flowers.  Huber  himself  states  that  bees  exclusively 
nourished  on  pollen  do  not  secrete  wax,  and  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, they  do  furnish  it  when  they  eat  saccharine  matter.  It 


HYMENOPTERA. 


323 


^s  easy  to  perceive  the  little  plates  of  wax  by  slightly  raising  the 
last  rings  of  the  bee's  abdomen.  Fig.  315  represents  a  bee  very 
heavily  laden  with  this  matter. 

The  working  bees  suspend  themselves   from   the  roof  of  the 


Fig.  316.— Clusters  of  Bees. 

hive  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form,  with  the  wax  which  they 
secrete,  festoons.  The  first  clings  to  the  roof  with  his  front 
legs,  the  second  hooks  himself  on  to  the  hind-legs  of  the  first, 
and  so  on,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  316.  They  in  this  manner  form 
chains,  fixed  by  the  two  ends  to  the  roof,  which  serve  as  a 
bridge  or  ladder  to  the  bees  which  join  this  assembly. 

The  result  of  all  this  is  at  last  a  cluster  or  swarm  of  bees 
which  hangs  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  hive.  In  this  attitude 
they  remain  at  first  motionless,  waiting  till  the  honey  in  their 
stomachs  is  changed  into  wax.  When  the  wax  is  sufficiently 
elaborated  in  its  organs,  one  of  them  detaches  itself  from  the  group 

Y2 


324 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


of  which  it  forms  a  part.  It  takes  between  its  legs  one  of  the 
flakes  of  wax  adhering  to  the  rings  of  its  abdomen,  kneads  it 
with  its  mandibles,  moistens  it  with  its  saliva,  and  gives  it  the 
appearance  of  a  soft  filament,  which  it  sticks  on  to  a  projecting 
point  of  the  ^eo£  _  Io-4his_JrstJayer  it  adds  others,  till  it  has 


succeeds  i 
shapeless 
blocks  th 
form  the 
foundatio: 

s\-n  r\a        o  itrv 

t,      d  continues  the  layinj 
)]      KS  of  wax  hang  dow 
U    jther  workers,  \  ~ith  t 
-  st  cells.     "While  the  w 
i-wall,  and  whilst  the  fi 

•»i/-\-n  rv  r»l  TT       cil^/^-rf-r*  r»  rvrl         r\Ti4"      / 

exhausted  all  its  wax.  Then  it  le  ves  its  post,  and  returns  to  the 
fields'  ;  another  worker,  another  mas|on,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 

>  of  the  foundations.  Presently 
L  from  the  roof.  It  is  in  these 
eir  mandibles,  hollow  out,  and 
>rkers  continue  to  prolong  the 
st  cells  are  being  shaped,  new 
r  rough  hewn,  and  the  work 
advances  with  a  marvellous  rapidit 

Each  (cell  forms  a  small  hexagonal  cup,  closed  on  one  side  only 
by  a  pyramidal  base,  produced  by  the  meeting  together  of  four 
rhombs.  ]  The  honeycombs  are  th  result  of  two  layers  of  cells 
placed  back  to  back,  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  the  bases  of  the 
one  befeome  the  bases  of  the  other,  the  base  of  each  little  cell 
being  forkied  by  the  union  of  the  jbases  of  three  opposite  cells. 
The  bees  begin  by  form-  ,h  >ase  of  the  cell  ;  they  then  add 

the  six  sydes,  or  walls,  which  are  to  complete  the  hexagonal  cup. 
At  the  B&LW>  time,  others  set  to  woijk  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
comb,  and  construct  little  cells  back  to  back  with  the  cells  of  the 
front  surfkce.  They  do  not  finish  them  off  at  once.  The  walls 
are  at  first  ^^ery  thick  :  new_workers,  who  succeed  those  who 
merely  mark  out  the  work,  being  occupied  in  planing  down  the 
rough-hewn  cells,  and  in  reducing  the  walls  to  the  desired  thick- 
ness. This  work  is  accomplished  with  an  incredible  celerity,  for 
the  bees  can  build  as  many  as  four  thousand  cells  in  twenty-four 
hours.  There  is  a  very  good  reason  for  the  hexagonal  form  being 
adopted  by  the  bees  in  constructing  their  cells,  as  it  involves  a 
question  of  economy,  which  these  insects  have  solved  in  their  most 
admirable  manner. 

"  When  one  has  well  examined,"  says  Reaumur,*  "  the  true 
shape  of  each  cell,  when  one  has  studied  their  arrangement, 


"  Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'IIistoire  des  Insectes,"  vol.  v.,  p.  379. 


HYMENOPTEEA.  325 

geometry  seems  to  have  guided  the  design  for  the  whole  work, 
and  to  have  presided  over  its  execution.  One  finds  that  all  the 
advantages  which  could  have  been  desired  are  here  combined. 
The  bees  seem  to  have  had  to  solve  a  problem  containing  condi- 
tions which  would  have  made  the  solution  appear  to  be  difficult 
to  many  geometricians.  This  problem  may  be  thus  enunciated  : 
given  a  quantity  of  matter,  say  of  wax,  it  is  required  to  form  cells, 
which  shall  be  equal  and  similar  to  each  other,  of  a  determined 
capacity,  but  as  large  as  possible  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
matter  which  is  employed,  and  the  cells  to  be  so  placed  that  they 
may  occupy  the  least  possible  space  in  the  hive.  To  satisfy  this 
last  condition,  the  cells  should  touch  each  other  in  such  a  manner 
that  ti^ere  ir  ^  \t\  ain  no  angular  space  between  them,  no  gap  to 
fill  up.  iiic  bees  have  satisfied  these  conditions,  and  at  the  same 
time  they  na«e_satisfied  the  first  conditions  of  the  problem  in 
making  cells  which  are  tubes  having  six  equal  sides,  or  in  other 
words,  hexagonal  tu  ull  further  that  the  best 

thing  the  bees  could  Vir  space  and  materials, 

was  to  compose  their  honeyco.  rows  of  cells  turned  in 

opposite  directions."  / 

This  arrangement,  it  will  be  seen,  enables  them  to  economise  the 
half  of  the  wax  intended  for  making  the  bases  of  the  cells.  They 
economise  it  still  more  by  making  the  bases  and  the  sides  of  the 
tubes  extremely  thin ;  the  borders  only  of  the  comb  being  fortified 
by  an  excess  of  wax.  These  two-sided  combs  descend  from  the 
roof  of  the  hive  in  parallel  series,  their  thickness  being  about  half 
an  inch.  They  are  fixed  to  the  top  by  a  sort  of  wax  foot,  and 
fastened  to  the  sides  by  numerous  bands.  The  bees  pass  between 
the  rows,  besides  excavating  circular  openings,  which  serve  as 
doors  of  communication.  The  form  and  the  general  arrangement 
of  these  buildings  are  otherwise  very  varied,  according  to  circum- 
stances. The  bees  always  accommodate  themselves  to  the  nature 
of  the  hive. 

In  all  these  operations  they  exhibit  great  judgment.  It  is 
impossible,  when  one  has  once  seen  them  at  work,  to  look  on  them 
as  mere  organized  machines,  whose  instinct  is  their  spring  of 
action  ;  we  are  forced  to  concede  to  them  intelligence. 

The  cells  are  of  three  dimensions :  the  small  ones  intended  for 


326 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


the  larvse  of  the  workers,  the  middling- sized  ones  for  the  larvae  of 
the  males,  and  the  large  ones  for  the  Iarva3  of  the  queens. 


^<sr     "V     — r^^T'^ 


Fig.  317.— Cells  constructed  by  Bees. 


These  last,  that  is,  the  royal  cells,  are  generally  only  about 
twenty  in  number,  in  a  hive  containing  twenty  thousand  bees. 
Constructed  of  a  mixture  of  wax  and  of  propolis,  resembling  a 


Fig.  318.— The  cells  of  a  beehive.    A,  large  cells  intended  for  the  larvae  of  the  queens.    B,  middling- 
eized  cells  intended  for  the  larvae  of  the  males.    C,  small  cells  intended  for  the  larvae  of  workers. 

rounded  thimble,  they  form  tubes  of  half  an  inch  long,  turned 
towards  the  exterior,  and  placed  always  vertically,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  appear  detached  from  the  comb. 


HYMENOPTEEA. 


32' 


The  weight  of  a  royal  cell  is  equivalent  to  that  of  a  hundred 
other  cells.  The  bees  spare  nothing  to  make  it  comfortable  and 
spacious.  "  It  is  quite  a  Louvre/'  says  Reaumur. 

But  independently  of  their  use  as  cradles,  these  cells  serve  as 
store- houses  for  honey. 

A  few  of  these  are  used  in  turn  for  both  these  purposes,  but 
a  great  number  are  reserved  exclusively  for  stores  of  honey  and 
pollen.  This  is  brought,  as  we  have  already  said,  in  the  form  of 


pellets, 


in  the  baskets  which  the  hind-legs  form. 


The  working 


Fig.  319.— Interior  of  a  hive. 

bee,  when  it  has  gathered  it,  pushes  it  into  the  cell,  pressing  it  in 
with  its  hind-legs.  Another  then  arrives,  and  kneads  up  the  mass 
to  make  it  adhesive.  The  bee  brings  the  honey  in  its  first 
stomach,  and  disgorges  it  into  one  of  the  cells  where  it  is  to  be 
kept.  However,  it  is  not  always  by  carrying  its  honey  into  a  cell 
that  the  worker  is  relieved  of  it,  often  finding  an  opportunity  to 
deliver  it  on  the  way. 

"  When  it  meets,"   says  Reaumur,*   "  any  of  its  companions 
who  want  food,  and  who  have  not  had  time  to  go  and  get  any,  it 

*  "Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  des  Inseetes,"  vol.  v.,  p  449. 


328  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

stops,  erects  and  stretches  out  its  trunk,  so  that  the  opening  by 
which  the  honey  may  be  taken  out  is  a  little  way  beyond  the  man- 
dibles. It  pushes  the  honey  towards  this  opening.  The  other 
bees,  who  know  well  enough  that  it  is  from  there  they  must  take 
it,  introduce  the  end  of  their  trunks  and  suck  it  up.  The  bee 
which  has  not  been  stopped  on  its  road,  often  goes  to  the  places 
where  other,  bees  are  working,  that  is,  to  those  places  where 
other  bees  are  occupied,  either  in  constructing  new  cells,  or  in 
polishing  or  bordering  the  cells  already  built ;  it  offers  them 
honey,  as  if  to  prevent  them  from  being  under  the  necessity  of 
leaving  their  work  to  go  and  get  it  themselves." 

The  honey  which  fills  the  store  cells  is  intended  for  daily  con- 
sumption, and  also  intended  as  a  reserve  for  the  period  when  the 
flowers  furnish  no  more.  The  empty  cells  are  left  open,  the 
workers  making  use  of  them  when  they  want  them,  particularly 
during  rainy  days,  which  keep  them  at  home.  But  the  cells 
which  contain  the  honey  put  by  in  reserve  are  closed.  "  They 
are/'  says  Reaumur,  "like  so  many  little  pots  of  jam  or  jelly, 
each  one  of  which  has  its  covering,  and  a  very  solid  covering  it 
is  too."  This  covering,  composed  of  wax,  hermetically  seals  the 
pots  containing  this  reserve  of  honey.  The  object  of  this  is  to 
keep  the  honey  in  a  certain  state  of  liquidity,  by  pfeventing  the 
evaporation  of  the  water  it  contains.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
it  does  not  run  out  of  those  cells  which  are  open,  although  their 
position  is  almost  always  horizontal.  This  is  because  there  are 
always  in  the  sides  of  these  narrow  tubes  points  enough  to  keep  it 
in,  and  that  besides  this  the  last  layer  of  honey  is  always  of  greater 
consistency  than  the  liquid  in  the  interior,  and  upon  which  it 
forms  a  sort  of  crust. 

When  the  harvest  has  been  abundant,  many  combs  of  closed  cells 
may  be  found  in  each  hive,  perfect  storehouses  of  abundance,  fur- 
nished for  the  wants  of  the  bad  season.  When  the  construction 
of  the  cells  goes  on  well, -'—often  on  the  day  after  the  bees  have 
installed  themselves  in  their  hive, — the  queen  goes  out  to  meet 
the  males.  At  the  hour  when  these  are  accustomed  to  disport 
themselves  in  the  sun,  that  is  to  say,  from  noon  till  five  o'clock, 
she  leaves  the  hive,  whirls  about  for  a  few  seconds,  and  disappears 
into  the  air.  At  the  end  of  half  an-  hour  she  returns,  pregnant. 


HYMENOPTEBA. 


329 


When  the  female  returns  to  the  hive,  she  is  the  object  of  every 
attention,  the  workers  pressing  round  her,  and  forming  quite  a 
train.  Many  approach  her,  and  lick  the  surface  of  her  body ; 
others  brush  her,  caress  her,  and  present  her  their  trunks  full  of 
honey.  Forty- eight  hours  after  her  return  to  the  hive,  the  mother 


bee  generally  begins  laying.*     Running  over  tins  A 

deposits  an  egg  in  each  empty  cell,  and  fixes  it  to  tl 

means  of  a  glutinous  secretion,   in  suoli  a   way  that 

suspended  in  the  interior  of  the  cell.     They  have  th-    a^ 

of  little  oblong  bodies,  of  a  bluish  white.      If  the  que 

hurry  to  lay,  lets  more  thai 

one  egg  fall  into  the  same 

workers  who  accompany  h< 

r  h  slen   to   carry   out   and 

those  that  are  in  excess.     T 

is        jften  the  case  W!K      the 

have  not  enough  cells  to 

or  i  j.  all  the  eggs  laid      We 

said  that  the  queen  only  lay 

w       er  eggs  at  this  time     :he  OL 

are  laid  later.      She   contii 

iu           l.iy   i     '1  the    C(    .   weati 

approaches,   when  she   ceas 

>s               sc,        a  does  iir     reassuri 

her  occupation  until  the  ret 

ur             Hiii,        This  liik  ng  is  v£r 

abundant*     The  queen  prodv 

cc              t  t\>     lundred  eggs  a  -day 

so  that  in  the  space  of  two 

moil4                       more  than    .\?el\ 

thousand.     Towards  the  ele 

penth  r                          xistenoe'in  tl 

perfect  state,  the  queen  begii 

LS  laying  the        flfc^icji  w^produi 

males,  their  number  varying  from  fifteen  hundred  to  three  thou 

sand  :  the  deposition  of  these  eggs  occupies  about  a  month. 

Towards  the  twentieth  day,  the  workers  lay  the  foundations  of 
some  royal  cells.  When  these  cells  have  attained  a  certain 
length,  the  queen  deposits  an  egg  in  each,  allowing,  however,  one 
or  two  days  to  intervene  between  the  laying  of  these  privileged 
eggs,  so  that  the  young  queens  to  whom  they  are  to  give  birth 
should  not  be  hatched  all  at  the  same  time,  which  would  cause 
difficulties  and  even  wars  concerning  the  right  of  their  succession 
to  the  throne.  This  complication,  human  governments  have  not 
been  always  able  to  avoid,  as  history  shows  ;  but  the  bees  have 
found  out  a  way  of  doing  so. 

The  distribution  of  the  eggs  in  the  cells  is  not  left  to  chance. 
Each  egg,  according  to  the  sex  to  which  it  belongs,  is  deposited 
in  the  cell  which  awaits  it.  The  eggs  of  the  females  do  not, 
*  Not  invariably,  the  period  is  often  longer. — ED. 


330 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


however,  differ  in  any  way  from  those  of  the  workers.  The  differ- 
ence in  their  development  depends  entirely  on  the  space  and  food 
allowed  them. 

We  represent  (Fig.  320)  a  portion  of  a  comb  containing  the 
eggs  placed  in  the  cells,  as  also  the  royal  cells.  The  regular 

order  of  laying  is  such  as 
we  have  just  described,  but 
the  result  is  quite  different 
when  the  impregnation  of 
the  queen  has  been  re- 
tarded by  an  accidental 
captivity  of  two  or  three 
weeks.  The  longer  this 
j  delay,  the  greater  will  be 
I  the  number  of  male  eggs. 
If  the  queen  is  shut  up  for 
more  than  twenty  days  after 
her  birth,  she  can  then  lay 
nothing  but  male  eggs 
during  the  remainder  of  her 
existence.  It  seems^  also, 
that  this  delay  troubles  her 

Fig.  320.-Portion  of  the  comb,  with  the  epgs  <  c<  npving    intellect;  for  she  then  often 
the  cells.    One  of  the  royal  cells  has  been  opened  by 

the  Queen.  makes  blunders  as  to  the 

cells.  She  lays  the  eggs  of  the  males  or  drones  in  the  cradles 
prepared  for  the  queens,  and  thus  brings  confusion  into  the  future 
community. 

The  eggs,  once  laid,  are  left  to  the  care  of  the  working  bees, 
which  Eeaumur  called  the  nurses,  in  opposition  to  the  wax- 
workers,  which  are  employed  in  works  of  construction.  According 
to  many  bee-keepers,  and  especially  M.  Hamet,*  this  division  of 
duties  is  not  positive.  The  young  workers  are  the  wax- workers  ; 
the  old  ones,  collectors  of  honey,  and  nurses.  However,  when  the 
honey-harvest  is  at  its  height,  all  the  workers  collect  the  spoil. 
Every  individual  is  pressed  into  the  service  at  the  harvest-time, 
as  with  men. 

The  eggs  are  not  long  in  being  hatched.  From  the  moment 
*  "  Cours  d' Apiculture,"  in  8^0.  Paris,  1864. 


HYMENOPTEEA.  331 

when  the  larva  comes  out  of  the  egg  till  that  of  its  metamorphosis 
into  a  pupa,  the  queen  keeps  in  her  cell,  rolled  up,  motionless  as 
an  Indian  idol  in  its  sacred  temple.  The  working  bees  visit  her 
from  time  to  time,  to  see  that  she  wants  for  nothing,  and  to  renew 
her  provisions.  They  also  carefully  inspect  the  different  cells, 
and  assure  themselves  of  the  good  condition  of  their 
nurslings.  The  pap  which  they  give  them  as  food 
is  whitish,  and  resembles  paste  made  of  flour.  It 
is  apparently  a  preparation  of  pollen,  prepared  in  Fig.  321. -Larva  of 
the  body  of  the  insect.  As  the  larvae  increase  in  fied)Bee 
size,  their  food  is  made  to  acquire  a  more  decided  taste  of  honey, 
and  to  become  even  slightly  acid.  It  seems,  then,  that  the  bees 
know  how  to  graduate  the  food  of  their  larvae  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  bring  it  nearer  by  degrees  to  honey. 

In  the  space  of  five  days,  the  larvae  are  developed ;  they  have 
absorbed  all  their  pap,  and  have  no  need  from  that  time  of  any 
nourishment,  for  they  are  about  now  to  change  into  pupae.  Now 
the  nurses  pay  them  a  last  attention.  They  wall  them  up  in  their 
cells,  closing  the  openings  with  a  waxen  covering.  The  larvae 
then  get  close  to  the  wax  covering.  In  thirty-six  hours  they  have 
spun  for  themselves  a  silky  cocoon,  in  which  they  undergo  their 
transformation  into  pupae.  The  moult,  which  precedes  their  meta- 
morphosis, constitutes  a  crisis,  as  with  the  caterpillars  of  Lepi- 
doptera. 

The  perfect  insect  is  hatched  seven  or  eight  days  after  its  trans- 
formation into  a  pupa,  the  organs  being  developed  little  by  little, 
and  the  young  bee  is  then  ready  to  appear  in  the  broad  daylight. 
It  breaks  through  the  thin  transparent  covering  in  which  it  is 
still  swathed  ;  then,  with  its  mandibles,  it  pierces  the  operculum 
or  door  of  its  prison,  and  opens  a  way  for  itself  by  which  it  can 
issue  forth.  With  the  assistance  of  its  front  legs,  it  clings  to  the 
rim  of  the  cell,  and  draws  itself  forward,  till  it  has  set  free  the 
whole  of  its  body.  The  other  bees  lavish  upon  this  newly-arrived 
little  stranger  all  possible  attention  to  make  its  entrance  into  the 
world  easy  and  agreeable  ;  assisting  and  supporting  it  till  it  has 
become  quite  strong.  It  very  soon  becomes  strong.  If  it  is  a 
working  bee,  it  is  not  long  in  getting  to  work  and  in  mixing  with 
its  companions  in  labour. 


332  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

This  is  the  way  in  which  the  hatching  of  ordinary  bees  takes 
place,  workers  and  males ;  the  first,  twenty  days  after  they  are 
laid  ;  the  second,  twenty- four  days  after.  The  rearing  and  birth 
of  the  young  queens  is  slightly  difierent.  In  proportion  as  the 
larvae  increase  in  size,  do  the  workers  enlarge  -the  cells  which 
contain  them ;  and  then  again  gradually  diminish  their  size  as 
the  moment  .of  their  last  metamorphosis  approaches.  A  special 
and  peculiar  food  is  given  to  the  larvae  of  the  queens ;  it  is  quite 
difierent  from  that  which  is  given  to  the  larvae  of  the  working 
bees,  being  a  heavier  and  sweeter  substance.  This  special  food 
seems  to  exercise  such  an  energetic  influence  on  the  development 
of  the  ovaries,  that  simple  workers  which  have  accidentally  re- 
ceived any  of  it,  during  their  larval  state,  become  pregnant  and 
lay  a  few  eggs.  But  this  anomalous  development  remains  imper- 
fect, because  the  prolific  food  was  only  administered  in  a  small 
quantity.  Besides  which,  the  size  of  the  cells  is  of  great  impor- 
tance to  the  development  of  the  larves  imprisoned  in  them  ;  and 
so  the  larvae  of  working  bees  having  lived  in  the  small  cells,  can 
never  attain  the  proportions  of  the  queen,  nor  acquire  her  fecundity. 
But  all  this  is  changed  if  these  larvae  are  moved  into  the  large 
cells  and  fed  on  this  royal  pabulum ;  they  then  become  veritable 
queens.  If,  with  us,  the  coat  does  not  make  the  man  nor  the 
frock  the  monk,  it  is  certain  that  with  bees  the  cradle  helps  mate- 
rially to  make  the  queen. 

When  the  queen  through  some  accident  or  other  has  perished, 
the  plebeian  population  of  the  hive  very  quickly  perceive  the  mis- 
fortune, and  without  losing  time  in  useless  regrets,  apply  them- 
selves to  repair  their  loss.  They  choose  the  larva  of  a  working 
bee,  less  than  three  days  old,  on  which  they  bestow  the  treatment 
suited  to  change  it  into  a  female.  The  workers  enlarge  the  cell 
of  this  grub  by  demolishing  the  surrounding  cells,  and  administer 
to  it  a  strong  dose  of  royal  food  to  effect  its  transformation.  This 
marvellous  metamorphosis  is  accomplished  like  those  which  one 
reads  of  in  fairy  tales,  where  so  many  poor  beggars  are  changed, 
by  a  wave  of  the  hand,  into  beautiful  princesses,  covered  with  gold 
and  precious  stones.  Only  here  the  fairy  tale  is  a  true  story  ;  the 
poet's  dream  a  real  phenomenon.  According  to  Francis  Huber, 
the  larva  intended  to  produce  a  female  has  to  change  its  posi- 


HYMENOPTEEA.  333 

tion.  The  workers  add  then  to  its  domicile  a  sort  of  vertical  tube, 
into  which  they  push,  and  turn  round  the  young  grub,  which  is 
the  hope  of  the  community.  For  twelve  days  a  bee,  a  sort  of  body- 
guard, has  special  charge  of  the  person  of  our  infant.  It  offers 
it  food,  and  pays  it  many  other  delicate  little  attentions.  When 
the  moment  for  the  metamorphosis  has  come,  the  orifice  of  the 
tube  is  closed,  and  the  bees  await  the  hatching  of  the  new  queen. 
Thus  the  loss  of  the  queen  is  speedily  replaced.  The  larvae  of  the 
queens,  when  they  are  shut  up  in  their  cells,  have  the  head  down- 
wards, whilst  the  larvae  of  the  males  have  the  head  upwards.  Their 
hatching  takes  place  thirteen  days  after  the  laying  of  the  eggs. ' 

As  soon  as  they  have  quitted  their  cradles,  the  young  queens 
are  ready  to  take  flight.  The  others,  workers  and  males,  are 
less  strongly  organized.  Before  they  are  able  to  take  a  part  in 
the  sports  and  labours  of  the  old  ones,  they  require  a  rest  of 
twenty-four  hours,  during  which  the  nurses  lick  them,  brush 
them,  and  offer  them  honey.  But  the  young  workers  require  to 
undergo  no  apprenticeship  before  they  do  the  work  which  devolves 
upon  them.  They  go  straight  to  their  work,  and  suppress  all 
apprenticeship.  Nature  is  their  guide  and  counsellor, 

When  the  hatching  has  begun,  each  day  adds  some  hundreds  of 
young  bees  to  the  population  of  the  hive,  which  is  not  long  in 
becoming  too  small  for  the  number  of  its  inhabitants.  It  is  then 
that  those  curious  emigrations  of  this  winged  people  take  place 
which  are  called  swarms.  The  queen  leaves  the  hive,  with  a  part 
of  her  subjects,  and  founds  a  new  colony  elsewhere.  In  the 
climate  of  France  the  bees  generally  swarm  in  the  months  of 
May  and  June.  In  the  south,  very  thickly  populated  hives  may 
furnish  as  many  as  four  swarms  in  a  season  ;  but  in  the  north, 
rarely  more  than  one  or  two.  But  in  some  years  swarming  does 
not  take  place  at  all,  for  the  want  of  a  sufficient  population.  In 
such  cases,  the  workers  do  not  construct  royal  cells  at  the  period 
when  the  eggs  of  the  males  are  laid,  and  the  swarming  is  put 
off  till  the  following  spring.  It  occasionally  happens  that  a  hive, 
although  full  of  bees,  cannot  make  up  its  mind  to  send  out  a 
swarm,  and  also  that  the  hives  thinly  populated  send  out  abundant 
swarms.  There  are,  then,  other  causes  than  the  excess  of  popula- 
tion which  exercise  an  influence  on  this  annual  crisis  in  the  life 


334  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

of  bees.  The  first  swarm  is  always  led  by  the  old  queen  ;  if  other 
swarms  succeed,  it  is  the  young  females  lately  hatched  who  lead 
the  way. 

There  are  many  signs  which  announce  that  a  swarm  is  going  to 
take  place.  The  appearance  of  the  males,  or  drones,  is  one  of  the 
first  signs.  Another  sign,  but  far  from  being  infallible,  is  the 
excess  of  the  population  in  the  common  home.  The  bees  seem 
then  to  find  themselves  so  ill  at  ease  in  their  over-crowded  hive, 
that  part  of  them  go  out  and  keep  outside,  either  on  the  stand 
upon  which  the  hive  is  placed,  or  upon  the  hive  itself.  Crowds  of 
bees  may  be  seen  heaped  up  on  each  other  outside,  only  waiting 
for  the  signal  of  departure.  But  the  least  equivocal  of  all  the 
signs,  that  which  points  out  the  event  for  the  very  day,  says 
Reaumur,  is  when  the  bees  of  a  hive  do  not  go  into  the  country 
in  as  great  a  number  as  usual,  although  the  weather  may  be 
favourable  and  seem  to  invite  them  to  do  so.  "There  is  no  sign," 
says  Reaumur,  "  which  points  out  so  surely  that  a  swarm  is  pre- 
paring to  take  flight,  as  when  in  the  morning,  at  those  hours 
when  the  sun  shines,  and  when  the  weather  is  favourable  for 
work,  the  bees  go  out  in  a  small  number  from  a  hive  from  which 
they  went  out  in  great  quantities  on  the  preceding  days,  and 
bring  back  only  a  little  rough  wax.  The  fact  of  their  acting  in 
this  manner  seems  to  force  us  to  concede  to  bees  more  intelligence 
and  foresight  than  many  people  are  inclined  to  allow  that  they 
possess;  at  any  rate,  it  is  exceedingly  puzzling  to  those  who 
wish  to  explain  all  their  actions  by  saying  that  they  are  purely 
mechanical.  Does  it  not  seem  proved  that  from  the  morn- 
ing all  the  inhabitants  of  a  hive  have  been  informed  of  the 
project  which  will  be  executed  not  before  noon,  or,  perhaps,  not 

for  some  hours  after  it  ? There  is  a  well-known  story  of 

an  old  grenadier  who,  being  comfortably  asleep  while  his  comrades 
were  pitching  their  tents,  answered  to  his  general,  M.  de  Turenne, 
when  questioned  on  the  subject,  i  that  he  knew  very  well  that 
the  army  would  not  remain  long  in  the  camp  they  were  pitching? 

"  All  our  bees,  or  nearly  all,  seemed  to  have  foreseen  the  move 
that  their  queen  was  about  to  make,  as  that  old  soldier  had  fore- 
seen the  general's  order  to  his  army."* 

*  "  Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  des  Insectes,"  tome  v.,  p.  611. 


IIYMENOPTEBA.  335 

In  a  hive  which  is  going  to  "  cast,"  as  it  is  called  in  technical 
phraseology,  there  is  often  heard  in  the  evening,  and  even  during 
the  night,  a  peculiar  humming.  All  seems  to  be  in  agitation. 
Sometimes,  to  hear  the  noise,  it  will  be  necessary  to  bring  your  ear 
close  to  the  hive ;  you  then  will  hear  nothing  but  clear  and  sharp 
sounds,  which  seem  to  be  produced  by  the  flapping  of  the  wings  of 
one  single  bee.  "  Those  who  know  better  than  I  do  the  language 
of  bees,"  says  Reaumur,  "have  told  marvels  of  these  sounds. 
They  pretend  that  it  is  the  new  queen  that  makes  this  noise, 
that  she  is  perhaps  haranguing  the  troops  she  wishes  to  go  with 
her,  or  that  with  a  kind  of  trumpet  she  animates  them  to  under- 
take the  great  adventure.  Charles  Butler,  the  author  of  '  Female 
Monarchy,'  attributes  to  this  noise  quite  another  signification.  He 
says  that  it  seems  as  if  the  bee  which  aspires  to  become  queen 
supplicates  the  queen- mother  by  lamentations  and  groans  to  grant 
it  permission  to  lead  a  colony  out  from  the  hive  ;  that  the  queen 
does  not  yield  sometimes  to  these  touching  prayers  for  two  days  ; 
that  when  she  does  acquiesce,  she  answers  the  suppliant  in  a  fuller 
and  stronger  voice ;  and  that  when  you  have  heard  the  mother-bee 
grant  this  permission,  you  may  hope  next  day  to  have  a  swarm.  .  . 
Butler  has  determined  all  the  modulations  of  the  chant  of 
the  suppliant  bee,  the  different  keys  to  which  they  are  set,  as  also 
those  of  the  chants  of  the  queen-mother.  He  pretends  that  it 
is  not  allowed  to  those  who  wish  to  raise  themselves  to  a  superior 
rank  to  imitate  the  chants  of  the  sovereign  ;  woe  betide  the  young 
female  if  she  should  dare  to  do  so,  it  would  only  be  in  a  spirit 
of  revolt ;  and  she  would  be  immediately  punished  by  the  loss 
of  her  head.  The  old-established  queen  does  more  than  that :  at 
the  same  moment  she  condemns  to  death  those  bees  which  had 
been  seduced."*  The  true  cause  of  this  unusual  noise  is  the 
agitation  of  the  wings  of  a  great  number  of  the  bees  in  the 
middle  of  the  hive. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  when  about  to  swarm,  the  bees  seem 
as  if  mad.  They  lose  their  senses,  the  queen  setting  them  the 
example.  Francis  Huber  has  made  the  most  curious  remarks 
on  this  subject.  Here  is,  according  to  this  immortal  observer, 
what  goes  on  in  the  hive  when  an  emigration  is  about  to  take 
*  "Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  des  Insectes,"  tome  v.,  pp.  616,  617. 


336  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

place.  The  queen  being  angry  at  the  noise  which  the  young 
females  ready  to  be  hatched  are  making  in  their  cells,  runs 
about  the  hive,  examines  the  cells,  and  endeavours  to  destroy 
those  which  contain  the  females ;  but  she  meets  with  a  very 
firm  resistance  from  the  workers,  who  take  upon  themselves  to 
protect  them.  She  endeavours  here  and  there  to  lay  an  egg, 
but  generally  retires  without  having  done  so.  She  runs,  stops 
short,  sets  off  again,  walks  over  the  bodies  of  the  workers  she 
meets ;  sometimes,  when  she  stops,  the  bees  near  her  stop 
also,  as  if  to  look  at  her.  They  advance  briskly  towards  her, 
strike  her  with  their  heads,  and  mount  on  her  back.  She 
then  dashes  off,  carrying  with  her  some  of  the  workers.  Not 
one  of  them  offers  her  honey;  she  takes  it  herself  from  the  open 
cells,  which  are  for  the  use  of  the  whole  hive.  They  no  longer 
draw  up  in  line  on  each  side  of  her  as  she  moves  along,  her 
guard  of  honour  no  longer  surrounds  her  ;  she  seems  fallen  from 
her  high  rank. 

However,  the  first  bees  which  were  disturbed  by  her  now  follow, 
running  like  herself,  and  spread  alarm  in  their  turn  among 
the  rest  of  the  population.  The  road  which  the  queen  has  tra- 
versed is  to  be  recognised  by  the  excitement  which  she  has  caused 
on  her  passage,  and  which  cannot  now  be  calmed.  Yery  soon 
she  has  visited  every  corner  of  the  hive,  so  that  the  fever  has 
become  general.  She  now  no  longer  lays  her  eggs  in  the  cells, 
but  lets  them  fall  anywhere  at  random.  She  seems  to  have  lost 
her  wits. 

The  nurses  in  their  turn  are  attacked  with  the  contagion.  They 
pay  no  attention  now  to  their  charges.  Those  which  return  from 
the  country  have  no  sooner  entered  the  hive  than  they  take  part  in 
these  tumultuous  movements,  and  give  themselves  up  to  the  general 
excitement.  Not  even  thinking  of  depositing  the  pellets  of 
pollen  which  they  carry  on  their  legs,  they  run  about  apparently 
without  aim.  The  delirium  takes  possession  of  the  whole  republic. 
The  end  of  all  this  is  a  general  sortie.  The  whole  hive,  with  the 
queen  at  its  head,  precipitates  itself  towards  the  door,  and  issues 
forth  to  create  a  swarm.  Once  in  the  fresh  air,  they  become 
quiet.  Their  madness  subsides,  and  they  fix  themselves  to  a  branch 
of  a  tree,  and  having  been  captured,  set  to  work  again  as  usual. 


HYMENOPTEEA.  337 

Francis  Huber  often  remarked  that,  in  a  swarm  which,  had  started, 
if  the  queen,  who  directed  the  flight,  were  seized  and  killed,  im- 
mediately all  the  bees  would  return  to  the  hive.  It  would  seem 
that  having  lost  their  chief  they  acknowledged  themselves  inca- 
pable of  forming  a  colony. 

A  swarm  never  comes  out  except  on  a  fine  day,  or  to  speak  more 
accurately,  at  an  hour  of  the  day  when  the  sun  is  shining,  when 
the  air  is  calm,  and  the  sky  clear.  It  is  generally  between  ten 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  "  We 
observed,"  says  Francis  Huber,  "  in  a  hive  all  the  signs  which  are 
the  forerunners  of  a  cast  for  a  swarm, — disorder  and  agitation ; 
but  a  cloud  passed  before  the  sun,  and  quiet  was  restored  to  the 
hive ;  the  bees  thought  no  more  of  swarming.  An  hour  after,  the 
sun  having  shown  itself  again,  the  tumult  recommenced,  increased 
very  rapidly,  and  the  swarm  set  out  on  its  journey." : 

At  the  moment  which  precedes  their  exit,  the  buzzing  increases 
in  the  hive.  Some  of  the  workers  go  out  first,  as  if  to  ascertain 
the  state  of  the  atmosphere.  The  moment  the  queen  has  passed 
the  threshold,  the  emigrants  follow  in  a  crowd  behind  her ;  in 
an  instant  the  air  is  darkened  with  bees,  which  crowd  together 
and  form  a  thick  cloud.  The  swarm  rises  whirling  round  about  in 
the  air ;  it  poises  itself  for  a  few  minutes  over  the  hive,  to  allow 
time  to  reconnoitre,  and  for  the  laggards  to  join,  and  then  goes 
off  at  full  speed. 

The  queen  does  not  make  choice  of  the  place  where  the  company 
shall  find  shelter.  When  a  branch  of  a  tree  has  been  selected 
by  a  certain  number,  they  fix  themselves  on  it.  Many  others  follow 
them.  When  a  great  many  have  collected  the  queen  joins 
the  throng,  and  brings  in  her  train  the  rest  of  the  troop.  The 
group  already  formed  becomes  larger  and  larger  every  instant. 
Those  which  are  still  scattered  about  in  the  air  hasten  to  join  the 
majority,  and  very  soon  all  together  compose  one  solid  mass  or 
clump  of  bees  clinging  to  each  other  by  their  legs.  This  cluster 

*  In  general,  bees  very  much  dislike  bad  weather  ;  when  they  are  foraging  in  the 
country,  the  appearance  of  a  single  cloud  before  the  sun  causes  them  to  return  home 
precipitately.  However,  if  the  sky  is  uniformly  dark  and  cloudy,  and  if  there  are 
not  any  sudden  alternations  of  darkness  and  light,  they  are  not  easily  alarmed,  and 
the  first  drops  of  a  gentle  rain  hardly  drive  them  away  from  their  hunting- 
ground. 

Z 


338 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


(Fig.  322)  is  sometimes  spherical,  sometimes  pyramidal,  and 
occasionally  attains  a  weight  of  nine  pounds,  and  may  contain  as 
many  as  forty  thousand  bees.  From  this  moment,  although  they 


Fig.  322. — Cluster  of  Bees  hanging  to  a  branch. 

are  uncovered,  they  remain  still.  In  a  quarter  of  an  hour  every- 
thing becomes  quiet,  and  the  bees  cease  to  hover  about  the  cluster 
more  than  round  an  ordinary  hive.  Now  is  the  moment  to  take 
possession  of  the  swarm  in  a  hive  prepared  beforehand  to  receive 
it.  If  delayed  too  long,  the  troop  flies  off,  and  establishes  itself 
in  some  natural  cavity,  as  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  &c.  The  bees 
then  return  to  their  wild  state. 

Under  a  warm  climate  where  flowers  abound,  the  hives  may  cast 
many  times  following.  The  first  swarm,  however,  is  always  the 
best.  It  is  more  numerous,  and  has  before  it  more  time  to  provision 
itself.  If  the  weather  remains  favourable,  it  is  not  rare  to  see 
it  send  out  a  swarm  itself  three  weeks  after  leaving  the  old  hive. 
The  old  queen  then  leads  the  emigration  of  the  second  swarm, 
abandoning  the  colony  she  had  lately  founded.  If  the  original 


HYMBNOPTEEA.  339 

hive  sends  forth  many  swarms,  the  interval  between  the  first  and 
the  second  is  from  seven  to  ten  days  ;  the  third  and  the  fourth 
follow  at  shorter  intervals.  But  these  late  casts  have  rarely 
vitality  enough  to  exist  long. 

A  swarm  never  returns  to  a  hive  it  has  once  left.  It  is  sur- 
prising then  that  a  hive  can  furnish  a  second  swarm  after  the 
interval  of  a  few  days,  without  being  too  much  weakened.  But 
the  old  queen,  in  quitting  her  domain,  leaves  behind  her  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  eggs.  These  larvae  are  not  long  in  re- 
peopling  the  hive,  so  as  to  furnish  a  second  swarm.  The  third 
and  the  fourth  casts  weaken  the  population  more  perceptibly; 
but  there  remain  still  enough  workers  to  continue  operations.  In 
some  cases  the  agitation  of  the  cast  is  so  great  as  to  cause  all  the 
bees  to  quit  the  hive  together,  leaving  it  deserted  ;  but  this  deser- 
tion only  lasts  an  instant,  one  part  of  the  swarm  wisely  returning 
to  their  home. 

All  those  which  start  away  become  members  of  the  new  colony. 
When  the  general  delirium  we  have  spoken  of  has  taken  possession 
of  them,  they  precipitate  themselves  together,  they  pile  themselves 
up  all  at  the  same  time  by  the  door  of  the  hive,  and  get  so  hot  as 
to  perspire  freely.  Those  which  are  in  the  midst  of  the  melee  bear 
the  weight  of  the  whole  crowd,  and  seem  bathed  in  sweat.  Their 
wings  become  damp,  and  they  are  no  longer  able  to  fly,  and  even  if 
they  manage  to  escape,  they  get  no  further  than  the  stand,  and 
are  not  long  in  re-entering  the  hive,  instead  of  following  the  main 
body  of  the  emigrants.  We  must  not  forget  that  a  part  of  the 
population,  about  one-third,  is  always  out  at  those  hours  of  the 
day  when  the  swarms  take  place,  engaged  in  collecting  provisions, 
and  having  collected  the  spoil,  these  workers  return  to  the  hive 
abandoned  by  the  greater  part  of  their  companions,  and  betake 
themselves  to  their  usual  occupations  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 
They  form  the  nucleus  of  the  new  population,  which  is  soon  en- 
larged by  the  hatching  of  the  pupse.  We  have  already  said  that 
the  first  swarm  is  always  led  by  the  old  queen  or  mother,  and 
that  it  starts  before  the  hatching  of  the  young  females.  If  she 
had  not  gone  out  before  their  birth  she  would  have  destroyed 
them,  and  the  new  hive  would  have  been  unable  to  reorganize  itself 
for  the  want  of  a  chief. 

z  2 


340  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

The  first  swarm  having  set  out,  those  bees  which  remain  in  the 
hive  pay  particular  attention  to  the  royal  cells.  If  the  young  queens 
make  efforts  to  escape  from  them,  their  guardians  watch  them 
narrowly,  and  as  the  prisoners  destroy  their  covers  of  wax  the 
guards  restore  them ;  but,  as  they  do  not  desire  the  death  of 
the  inmates,  they  pass  in  some  honey  through  the  opening  before 
they  close  it,  so  as  to  ameliorate  their  captivity.  At  the  appointed 
moment,  the  issue  of  the  first  egg  laid  quits  her  cradle.  Very 
soon  she  yields  to  the  murderous  instinct  which  impels  her  to 
destroy  her  rivals,  so  that  she  may  reign  with  undivided  sway  over 
the  community.  She  searches  for  the  cells  in  which  these  are 
shut  up,  but  the  moment  she  approaches  them  the  workers  pinch 
her,  pull  her  about,  drive  her  away,  and  oblige  her  to  move 
on,  and,  as  the  royal  cells  are  numerous,  she  finds  with  difficulty 
any  corner  in  her  hive  where  she  may  be  at  rest.  Incessantly 
tormented  by  the  desire  of  attacking  the  other  females,  and 
incessantly  driven  back  by  the  guard,  she  becomes  very  much 
excited,  passes  through  the  different  groups  of  workers  at  a  run, 
and  communicates  to  them  her  agitation.  She  leads  the  inmates 
of  the  hive  the  same  sort  of  dance  frequently  in  the  course  of 
the  day. 

Sometimes  the  young  queen  at  the  end  of  her  attempts  utters  a 
shrill  song,  analogous  to  that  of  the  grasshopper.  This  song, 
so  unusual  among  these  insects,  has  the  effect  of  petrifying  the 
bees.  So  says  Francis  Huber,  speaking  of  a  queen  which  had 
just  been  hatched,  and  which  was  trying  in  vain  to  satisfy  her 
jealous  instincts.  "  She  sang/'  says  he,  "  twice.  When  we  saw  her 
producing  this  sound,  she  was  motionless,  her  thorax  rested  against 
the  honeycomb,  her  wings  being  crossed  on  her  back,  and  she 
moved  them  about  without  uncrossing  them,  and  without  opening 
them.  Whatever  cause  it  was  that  made  her  choose  this  attitude, 
the  bees  seemed  affected  by  it,  all  of  them  now  lowered  their  heads 
and  remained  motionless.  Next  day,  the  hive  presented  the  same 
appearances,  there  remained  still  twenty-three  royal  cells  which 
were  all  assiduously  guarded  by  a  great  number  of  bees.  The 
moment  the  queen  approached  these,  all  the  guards  were  in  a  state 
of  agitation,  surrounded  her,  bit  her,  hustled  her  in  every  way, 
and  generally  finished  by  driving  her  off ;  sometimes  when  this 


HYMENOPTEEA.  341 

happened  she  sang,  resuming  the  attitude  which  I  just  now  de- 
scribed; from  that  moment  the  bees  became  motionless/'*  But 
the  fever  which  had  seized  on  the  young  queen  ended  by  com- 
municating itself  to  her  subjects,  and,  at  a  particular  moment,  a 
new  swarm  set  out  under  her  guidance. 

When  the  emigration  is  effected,  the  workers  which  had  remained 
at  home  set  free  another  female.  This  one  acts  in  the  same  way 
as  the.  first.  She  tries  to  get  at  her  rivals  still  imprisoned,  and 
whom  she  can  smell  in  their  cradles ;  .but  the  guard  repel  her 
with  vigour,  and  defeat  all  her  attempts,  till  she  makes  up  her  mind 
to  emigrate  with  a  new  swarm.  This  curious  scene  is  repeated, 
with  the  same  circumstances,  three  or  four  times  in  the  space  of  a 
fortnight,  if  the  weather  is  favourable,  and  the  hive  well  peopled. 
In  the  end,  the  number  of  bees  is  so  much  reduced,  that  they 
can  no  longer  keep  such  vigilant  guard  round  the  royal  cells,  and 
it  then  happens  that  two  females  come  out  together  from  their 
cradles.  Immediately  the  two  rivals  look  for  each  other,  and 
fight,  and  the  queen  that  comes  victorious  out  of  this  duel  to 
the  death  reigns  peaceably  over  the  people  she  has  won  for 
herself.  If,  in  the  tumult  which  precedes  the  swarming,  a 
female  escapes  from  her  prison,  it  may  happen  that  she  is  carried 
away  in  the  swarm.  In  this  case  the  deserters  divide  into  two 
separate  bands,  but  the  weakest  in  numbers  are  not  long  in 
breaking  up,  the  deserters  going  to  swell  the  principal  swarm. 
At  last  all  the  troop  is  reunited,  and  it  then  contains  two  queens. 
As  long  as  the  swarm  remains  fixed  on  its  branch,  all  passes 
quietly  in  spite  of  the  presence  of  a  second  queen.  But  as  soon  as 
it  has  become  domiciled,  the  affair  becomes  serious ;  a  duel  to  the 
death  takes  place  between  the  two  aspirants  to  the  command.  Two 
queens  cannot  exist  in  the  same  hive.  One  of  them  is  de  trop, 
and  must  be  got  rid  of. 

Francis  Huber  was  the  first  to  describe  these  duels  between  the 
queens.  We  quote  an  interesting  account  which  he  has  left  us 
of  a  combat  which  he  watched  on  the  12th  of  May,  1790 : — "  Two 
young  queens,"  says  he,  "  came  out  on  that  day  from  the  cells 
almost  at  the  same  moment,  in  one  of  our  smallest  hives.  As 
soon  as  they  saw  each  other  they  dashed  one  against  the  other 
*  "  Observations  sur  les  Abeilles,"  tome  i.,  p.  260. 


342  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

with  every  appearance  of  the  greatest  rage,  and  put  themselves 
in  such  a  position  that  each  one  had  its  antennae  seized  between 
the  teeth  of  its  rival ;  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  abdomen  of  the 
one  were  opposite  to  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  abdomen  of 
the  other ;  they  had  only  to  bend  round  the  posterior  extremity 
of  their  bodies  and  they  would  reciprocally  have  stabbed  each 
other  with  their  darts,  and  both  engaged  in  the  combat  would 
have  been  killed.  But  it  seems  as  if  nature  would  not  allow  this 
duel  to  end  by  the  death  of  the  combatants.  One  would  say  that 
she  had  ordained  that  those  queens,  finding  themselves  in  this 
position  (that  is  to  say,  face  to  face  and  abdomen  to  abdomen), 
should  retreat  that  very  instant  with  the  greatest  precipitation. 
And  so,  as  soon  as  the  two  rivals  felt  that  their  posterior  parts  were 
about  to  meet,  they  left  go  of  each  other,  and  each  one  ran  away 

in   an  opposite   direction A   few  minutes   after   they  had 

separated  from  each  other  their  fear  ceased,  and  they  recommenced 
looking  for  each  other.  Yery  soon  they  perceived  the  object  of 
their  search,  and  we  saw  them  running  one  against  the  other. 
They  seized  each  other  as  at  the  first,  and  put  themselves  exactly 
in  the  same  position.  The  result  was  the  same ;  as  soon  as  their 
abdomens  approached  each  other  they  only  thought  of  getting 
free,  and  ran  away.  The  working  bees  were  very  much  agitated 
during  the  whole  of  this  time,  and  their  tumult  seemed  to 
increase  when  the  two  adversaries  separated  from  each  other. 
We  saw  them  on  two  different  occasions  stop  the  queens  in  their 
flight,  seize  them  by  the  legs,  and  keep  them  prisoners  for  more 
than  a  minute.  At  last,  in  a  third  attack,  the  queen  which  was 
the  most  infuriated  or  the  strongest  rushed  upon  her  "rival  at  a 
moment  when  she  did  not  see  her  coming ;  seized  her  with  her 
teeth  by  the  base  of  her  wing,  then  mounted  on  to  her  body,  and 
brought  the  extremity  of  her  abdomen  over  the  last  rings  of  her 
enemy,  whom  she  was  then  able  to  pierce  with  her  sting  very  easily. 
She  then  let  go  the  wing  which  she  held  between  her  teeth,  and 
drew  back  her  dart.  The  vanquished  queen  dragged  herself  heavily 
along,  lost  her  strength,  and  expired  soon  afterwards."* 

These  singular  combats  take  place  between  young  maiden  queens. 
Francis  Huber,  by  introducing  into  a  hive  some  queens  from  other 
*  "Observations  sur  les  Abeilles,"  tome  i.,  pp.  174-178. 


HYMENOPTERA,  343 

hives  convinced  himself  that  the  same  animosity  impels  the 
females  which  are  pregnant  to  fight  with  and  destroy  each  other. 
From  the  moment  when  the  young  queen  to  whom  the  sove- 
reignty has  fallen  is  pregnant,  she  is  anxious  to  destroy  all  the 
royal  pupae  which  still  exist  in  the  hive,  and  which  are  then 
given  up  to  her  without  resistance  by  the  workers. 

OUK  ayaOov  TroXvKOipavir)  ets  KOipavos  eorw, 
Els    feo-iAev's.   .   .    .     * 


Become  a  mother,  the  female  attacks  one  after  the  other  the 
cells  which  still  contain  females.  She  may  be  seen  to  throw  her- 
self with  fury  on  the  first  cell  she  comes  to.  She  makes  an  open- 
ing in  it  with  her  mandibles  large  enough  to  allow  her  to  introduce 
her  abdomen,  and  then  turns  herself  about  till  she  has  succeeded 
in  giving  a  stab  with  her  sting  to  the  female  which  it  contains. 
She  then  withdraws,  highly  satisfied  with  what  she  has  done.  The 
working  bees,  who  up  to  this  moment  have  remained  indifferent 
spectators  of  her  efforts,  take  upon  themselves  the  rest  of  the  busi- 
ness. They  set  to  work  to  enlarge  the  hole  made  by  the  ruling 
queen,  and  to  draw  out  the  carcass  of  the  victim. 

In  the  meanwhile^  the  fierce  and  jealous  sovereign  throws  her- 
self on  another  cell,  and  breaks  into  it  with  violence.  If  she  does 
not  find  in  it  a  perfect  insect,  but  only  a  pupa,  she  does  not  con- 
descend to  make  use  of  her  royal  weapon.  The  workers  take  on 
themselves  to  empty  the  cell  and  destroy  its  contents.  These 
executions  over,  the  queen  can  for  the  future  occupy  herself  in 
laying,  without  having  anything  to  fear  from  rivals.  Let  us 
remark,  in  passing,  that  man  is  not  much  behind  these  insects, 
whose  savage  exploits  in  cruelty  we  have  just  related.  Among 
certain  tribes  of  Ethiopians  the  first  care  of  the  newly-crowned 
chief  is  to  put  in  prison  all  his  brothers,  so  as  to  prevent  wars  by 
pretenders  to  the  throne.  Delivered  from  all  dread  of  rivals,  our 
queen  sets  to  work  with  an  indefatigable  zeal,  and  the  workers, 
animated  by  the  hope  of  a  numerous  progeny,  heap  up  provisions 
around  them, 

But  now  a  new  tragedy  is  about  to  be  enacted.  The  drones, 
that  is  to  say,  the  males,  are  now  no  longer  wanted  in  the  colony  : 

*  "  Many  ruling  together  is  not  good:  let  there  be  one  ruler,  one  king."  — 
Homer  s  '•'•Iliad.'"  ii.  110. 


344  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

their  mission  is  over.  By  an  inexorable  law  of  nature  they  must 
be  got  rid  of,  and  the  working  bees  proceed  to  make  general  mas- 
sacre of  them.  It  is  in  the  months  of  July  and  August  that  this 
frightful  carnage  takes  place.  The  workers  may  then  be  seen 
furiously  giving  chase  to  the  males,  and  pursuing  them  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  hive,  where  these  unfortunate  insects  seek  a  place  of 
safety.  Three  or  four  workers  dash  off  in  the  pursuit  after  a  male. 
They  seize  hold  of  him,  pull  him  by  his  legs,  by  his  wings,  by  his 
antennae,  and  kill  him  with  their  stings.  This  pitiless  massacre 
includes  even  the  larvae  and  pupae  of  the  males.  The  executioners 
drag  them  from  their  cells,  run  them  through  with  their  stings, 
greedily  suck  the  liquids  contained  in  their  bodies,  and  then 
cast  their  remains  to  the  winds.  This  slaughter  goes  on  for  many 
days,  continuing  till  the  males  have  been  completely  got  rid  of, 
they  not  being  able  to  defend  themselves,  as  they  have  no  stings. 

They  are  allowed  to  live,  however,  when  they  are  fortunate 
enough  to  inhabit  a  hive  deprived  of  its  queen.  There  they  even 
find  a  place  of  perfect  safety  when  they  have  been  driven  out  of 
another  hive,  and  may  be  met  with  in  this  refuge  until  the 
month  of  January.  In  like  manner  the  live.s  of  the  males  are 
spared  in  those  hives  which,  instead  of  a  true  queen,  have  only  a 
female  half  impregnated,  which  lays  only  male  eggs  ;  but  a  hive 
of  this  kind,  whose  active  population  cannot  be  increased,  ends 
by  being  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants.  The  sterility  or  absence 
of  the  queen  entails  the  dissolution  of  the  society.  She  is,  in  fact, 
the  life  and  soul  of  the  hive,  and  without  her  there  is  no  hope,  no 
courage,  no  activity.  The  populace,  abandoned  to  itself,  falls  into 
anarchy.  Famine,  pillage,  ruin,  and  death  are  at  its  doors. 
Having  no  progeny  to  set  their  hopes  on,  the  bees  live  from  one 
day  to  another  without  a  care  for  the  morrow.  They  leave  off 
working,  and  live  entirely  on  theft  and  rapine,  and  at  last  they 
disappear  entirely.  It  is  a  society  become  rotten  and  broken  up 
for  the  want  of  a  moral  tie. 

If  the  loss  of  the  mother  bee  takes  place  at  a  period  at  which 
there  still  exist  in  the  hive  some  larvae  of  working  bees  of 
less  than  three  days  old,  the  nurses  (as  we  have  already  said) 
adopt  some  of  these  larvae,  and  make  them  into  queens  by  means 
of  the  physical  education  and  the  special  nourishment  which 


HYMENOPTEEA.  345 

they  give  them.  In  this  case,  then,  the  evil  can  be  repaired ;  the 
workers  themselves  find  a  remedy  without  assistance.  But  if  the 
hive  possesses  a  degenerate  queen,  which  only  lays  male  eggs, 
the  intervention  of  man  is  necessary  to  save  it,  by  the  substitution 
of  a  properly  impregnated  queen.  If,  indeed,  a  strange  queen 
wished  to  penetrate  alone  into  a  hive  already  containing  a  sovereign, 
she  would  infallibly  be  stopped  at  the  door  and  stifled  by  the  sen- 
tinels who  guard  the  entrance  to  the  hive.  These  would  surround 
her  immediately,  and  keep  her  captive  under  them  till  she  perished, 
either  through  suffocation  or  hunger.  They  do  not  employ  their 
stings  against  an  intruding  queen,  except  in  the  case  of  an  attempt 
being  made  to  deliver  her  from  their  clutches.  They  get  rid  of 
her  by  stifling. 

"When  it  is  wished  to  introduce  into  a  hive  a  stranger  queen, 
after  having  removed  the  original  sovereign,  many  precautions 
must  be  used  before  putting  her  into  the  common  home.  It  is  only 
after  some  time  that  the  bees  become  aware  of  the  disappearance 
of  their  queen  :  but  they  then  manifest  great  emotion.  They  run 
hither  and  thither,  as  though  mad,  leaving  off  their  work,  and 
making  a  peculiar  buzzing  sound.  If  you  return  to  them  their 
original  sovereign,  they  recognise  her,  and  calm  is  immediately 
restored ;  but  the  substitution  of  a  new  queen  for  the  original 
sovereign  does  not  produce  the  same  effect  in  every  case.  If 
you  introduce  the  new  queen  half  a  day  only  after  the  removal 
of  the  old  queen,  she  is  very  badly  received,  and  is  at  once  sur- 
rounded, the  workers  trying  to  suffocate  her.  Generally  she  sinks 
under  this  bad  treatment.  But  if  you  allow  a  longer  interval  to 
elapse  before  you  introduce  the  substitute,  the  bees,  rendered  more 
tractable  by  the  delay,  are  better  disposed  towards  her.  If  you 
allow  an  interregnum  of  twenty-four  hours,  the  stranger  queen  is 
always  received  with  the  honours  due  to  her  rank,  a  general 
buzzing  announcing  the  event  to  the  whole  population  of  the  hive. 
They  assign  to  their  adopted  queen  a  train  of  picked  attendants. 
They  draw  up  in  line  on  her  passing  by  ;  they  caress  her  with  the 
tips  of  their  antennae  ;  they  offer  her  honey.  A  little  joyful  flut- 
tering of  the  escort  announces  that  every  one  in  the  little  republic 
is  satisfied.  The  labours  out  of  doors  and  indoors  then  begin  anew 
with  more  activity  than  ever. 


346  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

It  is  principally  during  stormy  days,  when  the  heat  and  the  elec- 
tricity in  the  air  are  favourable  to  the  secretion  of  pollen  in  plants, 
that  the  bees  go  into  the  fields  to  make  their  harvest.  They  heap 
up  provisions  in  the  hive  against  the  cold  season,  not  forgetting, 
however,  to  watch  over  the  eggs,  their  future  hope,  "spem  gentis," 
as  Virgil  calls  them. 

These  peaceful  occupations  are  sometimes  interrupted  by  the 
dire  necessities  of  war.  It  happens  that  the  bees  of  an  im- 
poverished hive,  impelled  by  hunger,  that  bad  counsellor,  make 
up  their  mind  to  attack  and  to  pillage  the  treasures  of  a  neigh- 
bouring hive  which  is  abundantly  stocked  with  provisions.  A 
savage  fight  then  takes  place  between  the  two  battalions.  Each 
one  precipitates  itself  with  fury  upon  its  adversary.  Two  bees 
press  against  and  bite  each  other  till  one  is  overcome.  The 
victor  springs  upon  the  back  of  the  vanquished,  squeezes  it 
round  the  neck  with  its  mandibles,  and  pierces  it  between  the 
rings  of  its  abdomen  with  its  sting.  The  victorious  bee  places 
itself  by  the  side  of  its  fallen  enemy,  and  resting  on  four  of  its  legs, 
rubs  its  two  hind  ones  together  proudly,  as  a  sign  of  supreme 
triumph.  Heaumur  relates  a  strange  fact  which  he  says  he  often 
observed,  and  which  proves  that  the  insects  we  are  treating  of 
do  not  fight  to  satisfy  a  sanguinary  and  savage  instinct,  but 
(which  is  less  reprehensible)  to  satisfy  their  hunger.  Bees  attacked 
by  a  superior  force  are  in  no  danger  of  losing  their  lives  if  their 
enemies  can  induce  them  to  give  up  their  throats —that  expression 
conveys  the  idea.  Supposing  three  or  four  are  furiously  attacking 
one  bee  :  they  are  pulling  it  by  its  legs  and  biting  it  on  its  thorax. 
The  unfortunate  object  of  this  attack  has  then  nothing  better  to 
do,  to  escape  alive  from  such  a  perilous  situation,  than  to  stretch 
out  its  trunk  laden  with  sweet-scented  honey.  The  plunderers 
will  come  one  after  the  other  and  drink  the  honey  ;  then,  cloyed, 
satisfied,  having  nothing  more  to  demand,  they  go  their  way,  leav- 
ing the  bee  to  return  to  his  dwelling-place. 

There  are  also  strange  fights — regular  duels — between  the  bees 
of  the  same  hive.  Yery  hot  weather  has  the  eifect  of  irritating 
them,  and  making  them  boil  over  with  rage.  They  are  then 
dangerous  to  men,  whom  they  attack  boldly.  But  more  often  it  is 
amongst  themselves  that  they  quarrel.  One  often  sees  two  bees 


HYMENOPTEEA.  347 

which  meet  seize  each  other  by  the  neck  in  the  air.  It  happens 
alsd  that  a  bee,  in  a  state  of  fury,  throws  itself  on  another  who  is 
walking  quietly  and  unsuspiciously  along  the  edge  of  its  hive. 
When  two  bees  are  struggling  in  this  manner  they  descend  to  the 
ground,  for  in  the  air  they  would  not  be  able  to  get  purchase 
enough  to  be  sure  of  striking  each  other.  They  then  engage  in  a 
hand-to-hand  fight,  as  the  gladiators  used  formerly  to  do  in  the 
circus.  They  are  continually  making  stabs  with  their  stings,  but 
almost  always  the  point  slips  over  the  scales  with  which  they  are 
covered.  The  combat  is  sometimes  prolonged  during  an  hour 
before  one  of  them  has  found  the  weak  point  in  the  other's  natural 
cuirasse  and  has  buried  its  terrible  weapon  in  the  flesh.  The 
victor  often  leaves  its  sting  in  the  wound  which  it  has  made, 
and  then  dies,  in  its  moment  of  triumph,  through  the  loss  of  this 
organ.  Sometimes  the  two  combatants,  in  spite  of  long  and  savage 
assaults,  cannot  succeed  in  injuring  cither's  solid  armour.  In  such 
a  case,  they  leave  each  other,  tired  of  war,  and  fly  away,  despairing 
of  obtaining  a  victory. 

At  the  end  of  autumn,  when  the  bees  no  longer  find  any  flowers 
in  the  fields  to  plunder,  they  finish  rearing  the  eggs  on  the  pollen 
which  they  keep  in  store,  and  the  queen  ceases  to  lay.  Numbed 
by  the  cold  of  the  winter,  the  workers  cease  to  go  out.  Crowded 
together,  they  mutually  warm  each  other,  and  thus  hold  out,  when 
the  cold  is  not  too  intense,  against  the  rigour  of  the  frosts. 
Huddled  up  between  the  cakes  of  the  honeycomb,  they  wait  for  the 
return  of  fine  weather,  to  recommence  their  labours  at  home  and 
abroad.  After  two  or  three  years  of  this  laborious  existence  the 
bee  dies,  but  to  live  again  in  a  numerous  posterity,  as  Virgil 
says : — 

"  At  genus  immortale  manet,  multosque  per  annos 
Stat  fortuna  domus,  et  avi  numerantur  avorum !  " 

There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  discussion  on  the  question 
whether  bees  constitute  monarchies  or  republics.  According  to 
our  opinion  theirs  is  a  true  republic.  As  all  the  population  is  the 
issue  of  a  common  mother,  and  as  each  bee  of  the  female  sex  can 
become  a  queen — that  is  to  say,  a  mother-bee,  if  it  receives  an 
appropriate  nourishment — it  is  manifest  that  the  title  of  queen  has 
been  wrongly  given  to  the  mother-bee.  After  all,  she  is  nothing 


348  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

more  than  president  of  a  republic.  The  vice-presidents,  as  we 
have  already  pointed  out,  are  all  those  females  which  at  any  given 
moment  may  be  called  by  choice — that  is,  by  popular  election — to 
fulfil  the  functions  of  the  sovereign,  when  death  or  accident 
has  put  an  end  to  her  existence.  "  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
king  in  nature,"  said  Daubenton  one  day,  in  one  of  his  lectures 
at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  The  audience  immediately  applauded, 
and  cried  "Bravo ! "  The  honest  savant  stopped  quite  disconcerted, 
and  asked  his  assistant  naturalist  the  cause  of  this  applause,  per- 
haps ironical.  "  I  must  have  said  something  stupid,"  repeated 
poor  Daubenton  between  his  teeth,  remembering  the  saying  of 
Phocion  under  similar  circumstances.  "  JSTo,"  replied  his  assistant 
naturalist,  "  you  have  said  nothing  but  what  is  quite  true ;  but, 
without  meaning  it,  you  have  made  a  political  allusion.  You  spoke 
against  kings,  and  our  young  republicans  thought  that  you  were 
alluding  to  Louis  XVI."  "Indeed,"  cried  the  coadjutor  of 
Buffon,  "  I  had  no  idea  that  I  was  talking  politics ! "  The  bee 
republic,  this  little  animal  society,  is  admirably  constituted,  and 
all  its  citizens  obey  its  laws  with  docility. 

Bees  have  often  served  as  an  example,  proving,  according  to 
some,  the  marvellous  intelligence  of  certain  little  animals  ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  an  instinct  wonderfully  developed.  For  ourselves, 
we  have  never  well  understood  what  people  mean  by  the  word 
instinct ;  and  we  frankly  grant  to  the  bee  intelligence,  as  we  do 
also  to  many  animals.  The  greater  number  of  the  acts  of  their 
life  seem  to  be  the  result  of  an  idea,  a  mental  deliberation,  a 
determination  come  to  after  examination  and  reflection.  The 
construction  of  their  cells,  always  uniform,  is>  they  say,  the  result 
of  instinct.  However,  it  happens  that  under  particular  circum- 
stances, these  little  architects  know  how  to  abandon  the  beaten 
track  of  routine,  reserving  to  themselves  the  power  of  returning, 
when  it  is  useful  to  do  so,  to  the  traditional  principles  which 
ensure  the  beauty  and  regularity  of  their  constructions.  Bees 
have  been  seen,  indeed,  to  deviate  from  their  ordinary  habits  in 
order  to  correct  certain  irregularities,  the  result  of  accident  or 
produced  by  the  intervention  of  man,  which  had  deranged  their 
works. 

Francis  Huber  relates   that    he  saw  bees    propping    up  with 


HYMENOPTEEA.  349 

pillars  and  flying  buttresses  of  wax  a  piece  of  the  honeycomb 
which  had  fallen  down.  At  the  same  time,  put  on  their  guard  by 
this  sad  accident,  they  set  to  work  to  fortify  the  principal  frame- 
work of  the  other  combs,  and  to  fasten  them  more  securely  to  the 
roof  o  f  the  hive.  This  took  place  in  the  month  of  January,  and 
therefore  not  during  the  working  season,  and  when,  to  provide 
against  a  distant  eventuality  was  the  only  question.  M.  Walond 
has  reported  an  analogous  observation.  Is  there  not  here,  in  the 
first  place,  a  true  and  excellent  reasoning,  then  an  act,  an  opera- 
tion, a  work,  executed  as  the  result  of  this  reasoning  ?  Now,  an 
operation  which  is  performed  as  the  result  of  reasoning,  is  attribut- 
able to  intelligence.  Again,  the  bees  give  different  sorts  of  food 
to  the  different  sorts  of  larvae.  They  know  how  to  change  this 
food  when  an  accident  has  deprived  the  hive  of  its  queen,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  replace  her ;  this  is  another  proof  of  intelligence. 

But  it  is,  above  all,  in  the  face  of  an  enemy  that  the  intellectual 
faculties  of  these  insects  show  themselves.  There  are  always  at 
the  entrance  of  every  hive  three  or  four  bees,  which  have  nothing 
else  to  do  but  to  guard  the  door,  to  keep  a  watch  over  incomers 
and  outgoers,  and  to  prevent  an  enemy  or  an  intruder  from 
slipping  into  the  community.  When  one  of  them  perceives  an 
enemy  on  the  borders  of  the  hive,  it  dashes  forwards  towards  it, 
and  by  a  menacing  and  significant  buzzing  warns  it  to  retire. 
If  it  does  not  understand  the  warning,  which  is  a  rare  occurrence, 
—for  men,  horses,  dogs,  and  animals  of  all  kinds  know  perfectly 
well  the  danger  to  -which  they  expose  themselves  by  approaching 
too  near  to  a  hive  in  full  operation,* — the  bee  gets  a  reinforcement 
and  very  soon  returns  to  the  combat  with  a  determined  battalion. 
All  this  is,  it  seems  to  us,  intelligence. 

M.  de  Frariere,  in  his  work  on  bees  and  bee-keeping,  tells  the 
following  anecdote  : — A  bee-keeper  had  an  apiary  in  his  garden. 
But  he  very  soon  found  out  that  certain  birds,  called  bee-eaters 
or  wasp-eaters,  had  made  their  home  near  it.  Perched  on  the 
trees,  they  eat  all  the  bees  they  could  seize  on  in  their  pro- 

*  The  bee's  sting  may  lead  to  very  serious  consequences.  It  often  happens 
that  large  animals,  such  as  horses  or  oxen,  tied  up  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  bee- 
hive, and  which  have  disturbed  the  bees,  die  in  consequence  of  stings  received  from 
them. 


350 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


gress.  He  was  only  able,  with  his  gun,  to  drive  away  the 
useful  birds,  whilst  the  bee-eaters  showed  themselves  indifferent 
to  the  smell  of  gunpowder:  they  seemed  to  be  invulnerable. 
One  day,  as  the  proprietor,  quite  puzzled  as  to  what  he  should 
do,  was  trying  to  find  out  some  means  of  getting  rid  of  these 


Fig.  323.— Sentinel  Bees  guarding  the  entrance  to  the  hive. 

enemies,  he  all  of  a  sudden  heard  a  great  buzzing.  A  few  bees 
which  had  luckily  escaped  from  the  voracious  beaks  of  their  feathered 
aggressors,  had  lost  no  time  in  spreading  the  alarm  in  the  hive, 
and  in  demanding  that  vengeance  should  be  taken.  A  regular 
army  of  threatening  bees  directed  their  course,  in  perfect  order, 
against  two  of  these  birds  which  had  been  pointed  out  for  attack. 
The  birds  had  the  best  of  it,  and  gorged  themselves  on  the 
phalanx ;  and  again  took  up  their  position,  whilst  the  bees. 


HYMENOPTEBA.  351 

vanquished,  returned  to  their  hive.  But  very  soon  there  was  a 
great  noise  in  the  interior  of  the  hive,  and  the  bees  were  seen, 
assembled  together  in  a  serried  mass,  to  dash  forward  with  the 
speed  of  a  cannon-ball  towards  the  enemy,  which,  this  time,  flew 
away  at  full  speed  and  came  back  no  more.  Then  the  bees  made 
a  triumphal  entry  into  their  dwelling,  satisfied  with  the  success 
of  their  tactics.* 

We  have  just  said  that  there  are  sentinels  at  the  entrance  of 
every  hive.  They  touch  with  their  antennae  each  individual  that 
wishes  to  penetrate  into  the  house.  Hornets,  the  Death's-head 
Sphinx,  slugs,  &c.,  often  try  to  introduce  themselves  into  the  hive. 
In  that  case,  on  the  appeal  of  the  watchful  porters,  all  the  bees 
combine  their  efforts  to  defend  the  entrance  to  their  habitation. 
It  would  be  impossible  for  them,  in  fact,  to  stop  the  ravages  of 
their  enemies  when  once  entered  into  the  interior.  When  a 
sphinx  has  succeeded  in  introducing  itself  into  a  hive,  it  sits  down 
and  drinks  the  honey  in  great  bumpers,  devouring  all  the  pro- 
visions ;  and  the  unfortunate  proprietors  of  the  house  are  obliged 
to  emigrate.  To  stop  the  entrance  of  moths  which  fly  by  night, 
the  bees  contract,  and  sometimes  barricade,  their  door  with  a 
mixture  of  wax  and  propolis.  When  a  slug  or  any  other  large 
animal  has  managed  to  introduce  itself  into  the  interior,  they  kill 
it  and  wrap  it  up  in  a  shroud  of  propolis,  as  we  have  already 
related. 

However,  they  are  quite  helpless  against  certain  microscopic 
parasites  which  sometimes  attack  them.  The  bee-louse,  which 
has  been  described  and  drawn  by  Reaumur  in  one  of  his  Memoirs,  f 
and  the  parasite  which  was  described  in  1866  by  M.  Duchemin, 
the  Sugar  Acarus,  which  is  found  in  the  liquid  honey  of 
those  hives  which  are  attacked  by  the  disease  called  the  rot 
(pourriture),  are  the  most  serious  enemies  of  the  bee.  The 
Gallerias  are  also  terrible  enemies  to  them.  Every  hive  thus 
attacked  is  ruined.  These  destructive  insects  attack  also  the  wild 
bees,  drive  them  from,  their  nests,  and  destroy  the  wax  of  the 
cakes  forming  the  honeycomb.  The  Galleria  impudently  makes 
his  home  in  the  houses  of  bees,  wild  as  well  as  domesticated. 

*  "  Les  Abeilles  et  1' Apiculture,"  in  8™,  2nd  edition.     Paris,  1865.     Page  107. 
f  Tome  v.,  planche  36. 


352  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

The  habits  of  bees  in  their  wild  state,  which  make  their  nests 
in  the  trunks  of  trees  and  other  cavities,  do  not  differ  from,  those 
of  domesticated  bees.  Only  the  latter  become  tame  with  man, 
getting  used  to  those  who  look  after  them,  and  becoming  less 
aggressive  towards  strangers. 

Apiculture,  or  bee-keeping,  is  still  at  the  present  day  an  im- 
portant business,  although  honey  has  lost  a  great  deal  of  its 
utility  since  the  introduction  of  sugar  into  Europe.  Without 
entering  into  many  details  on  apiculture,  that  is  to  say,  on  the 
attention  it  is  necessary  to  pay  to  bees,  we  will  mention  the 
principal  duties  of  the  bee-keeper. 

When,  in  the  spring,  the  bee  font  la  barbe  (as  the  French 
say),  that  is,  when  they  are  getting  ready  to  swarm,  one  must 
watch  narrowly,  so  as  not  to  lose  them.  As  soon  as  a  swarm 
has  settled  on  a  tree  or  on  any  artificial  resting-place  prepared  on 
purpose  in  the  neighbourhood,  it  is  approached,  after  having 
covered  one's  face  with  a  piece  of  transparent  linen  or  canvas,  or 
with  a  hood,  and  the  cluster  is  caused  to  fall  into  a  hive  turned 
upside  down.  The  hive  is  then  turned  up  again  and  put  in  its 
place  ;  or  else,  if  it  is  only  to  serve  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
swarm  to  another  place,  shaken  about  before  the  door  of  the 
hive  which  the  swarm  is  destined  to  occupy.  The  bees  then 
beat  to  arms,  and  set  to  work  to  enter  their  new  habitation  in 
a  compact  column.  Fig.  324  represents  the  manner  in  which  one 
ought  to  proceed  in  order  to  gather  a  swarm  of  bees,  which  is  fixed 
on  a  branch  of  a  tree,  and  introduce  it  into  the  hive  prepared  for  it. 
Let  us  listen  on  this  subject  to  an  experienced  bee-keeper,  M. 
Hamet : — "  As  soon  as  a  swarm  has  fixed  itself  anywhere,  and  there 
are  only  a  few  bees  fluttering  round  the  cluster,  you  must  make  your 
preparations  for  lodging  them  in  a  hive  you  have  got  ready  for  the 
purpose.  Some  people  rub  the  hive  on  the  inside  with  aromatic 
plants  or  honey,  with  the  object  of  making  the  bees  fix  themselves 
there  more  surely.  This  precaution  is  not  indispensable.  What 
is  essential  is,  that  the  hive  should  be  clean  and  free  from  any  bad 
smell.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  pass  it  beforehand  over  the  flame  of  a 
straw  fire,  which  destroys  the  eggs  of  insects  and  insects  them- 
selves which  may  have  lodged  in  it. 

"  After  having  covered  your  head  with  a  camail,  if  the  swarm  has 


HYMENOPTERA. 


353 


settled  in  a  difficult  place,  and  you  are  afraid  of  being  stung,  you 
hold  the  hive  under  the  cluster  of  bees  and  make  them  fall  into  it, 
either  by  shaking  the  branch  to  which  the  swarm  is  attached  very 
hard,  or  by  means  of  a  small  broom,  or  even  with  the  hand,  for 
then  they  very  rarely  sting ;  it  is  hardly  ever  necessary  to  take 
any  precautions  in  approaching  them,  except  for  swarms  which 


Fig.  324.— Taking  a  swarm. 

have  been  fixed  for  many  hours,  or  since  the  day  before.  When 
the  bees  have  fallen  in  a  mass  to  the  bottom  of  the  hive,  you  turn 
this  gently  over,  and  place  it  on  a  piece  of  linen  stretched  out  on 
the  ground  near  the  place  where  the  swarm  was,  or  on  a  tray,  or 
simply  on  the  ground  itself,  if  it  is  dry  and  clean.  You  will  have 
taken  care  to  place  on  this  linen  a  little  wedge,  a  stick  or  a 
stone  to  raise  the  hive  a  little,  and  to  leave  more  room  through 

A  A 


354 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


which  the  bees  may  enter.  A  great  part  of  the  bees  which 
fall  into  the  hive  hook  themselves  on  to  its  sides  ;  but  a  good 
number  are  dropped  on  the  linen  when  the  hive  is  turned.  This 
is  the  manner  in  which  you  act  when  it  is  determined  to  lodge  the 
swarm ;  but  when  the  swarm  is  to  be  lodged  in  another  hive,  as 
we  shall  see  further  on,  immediately  that  the  bees  recognise  the 
lodging  which  is  destined  for  them,  they  set  to  work  to  beat  to 
arms,  and  to  enter  in  a  compact  column  their  new  dwelling  ;  those 
which  are  fluttering  about  in  the  air  are  summoned  by  this  call, 
and  are  not  long  in  alighting  on  the  spot  where  the  rest  of  their 


Fig.  325.— Bell-shaped  hive. 


Fig.  326.— English  hive. 


companions  are  fixed.  At  the  end  of  a  quarter  or  half  an  hour 
at  the  most,  all,  or  nearly  all,  have  entered  the  hive.  A  few 
still  hover  about  round  the  place  where  the  swarm  was  fixed.  If 
the  number  is  considerable,  and  if  many  have  stopped  in  this 
place,  you  must  make  them  quit  it  by  placing  some  offensive  herb 
such  as  celandine,  horehound,  field  camomile,  &c.,  on  it,  or  project 
the  smoke  of  a  rag  upon  them,  which  will  drive  away  the  bees  and 
force  them  to  look  for  the  colony  or  to  return  to  the  mother- 
hive.  You  may  also  project  smoke,  but  in  moderate  quantities, 
on  the  bees  grouped  around  and  on  the  borders  of  the  lodging 


HYMENOPTERA. 


355 


which  you  have  just  given  them,  and  which  they  will  not  be  long 
in  entering."* 

A  good  swarm  weighs  from  four  to  six  pounds ;  one  pound 
contains  about  four  thousand  bees.  The  second  swarms  weigh 
rarely  more  than  two  pounds,  and  the  third  still  less.  You  can 
also  form  artificial  swarms  by  drawing  off  the  bees  of  one  hive  into 
another ;  an  operation  which  is  easy  with  bell-shaped  hives.  A 
glance  at  Fig.  325,  which  represents  the  common  hive  of  the 
north  of  France,  that  is  to  say,  the  bell- shaped,  will  show  how  easy 
it  is  to  effect  this  drawing-off,  or  pouring  out  of  the  bees,  by 
joining  together  at  their  bases  two  hives,  the  one  empty,  the  other 
containing  a  swarm.  In  order  to  have  control  over  the  bees  during 
the  operation,  you  must  slightly  stupify  them  with  the  smoke  of  a 
lighted  rag. 

Beehives  are  of  a  thousand  different  shapes,  each  of  which  has  its 
particular  advantages.  They  are  made  of  wood  and  of  straw ;  and 


Fig.  327.— Swiss  hive.  •  Fig.  328.— Polish  hive. 

the  shapes  used  in  different  countries  are  very  various.     We  give 
as  examples,  Figs.  325,  326,  327,  328. 

The   site,   that    is,    the   place    where   hives   stand,    is    not    a 
*  "Cours  d' Apiculture,"  pp.  73,  74. 
A  A   2 


356  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

matter  of  indifference.  It  is  generally  supposed  tliat  bees  ouglit 
to  be  established  in  a  place  fully  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  to  the 
greatest  heat  of  the  day.  This  is  a  mistake.  M.  de  Frariere, 
in  his  work  on  bees  and  bee-keeping,  recommends  the  hives  to 
be  placed  under  trees,  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be  kept  in 


Fig.  329.— Garden  hive. 

the  shade.     Fig.  ^330  shows  the  way  in  which  M.  de  Frariere 
recommends  hives  to  be  arranged. 

Dr.  Monin,  author  of  an  interesting  monograph  of  the  bee, 
published  in  1866,  after  treating  of  the  different  arrangements 
which  have  been  recommended  for  hives,  concludes  thus : — 
"It  is  to  satisfy  all  these  requirements  that  experienced  bee- 
keepers so  much  recommend  for  the  hives  an  exposure  to  the 
ten  o'clock  sun;  that  is  to  say,  that  they  should  be  turned  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  sun  may  shine  on  their  entrances  when 
it  has  already  attained  a  certain  height  above  the  horizon,  and 
.sufficiently  warmed  the  surrounding  air  for  the  bees,  which  the 
brightness  of  its  rays  has  tempted  forth,  not  to  be  seized  with 


HYMENOPTERA.  357 

cold,  and  numbed  before  they  have  been  able  to  return  home 
again."  * 

In  the  month  of  March,  a  gathering  of  wax  is  made  by  cutting 
away  the  lower  part  of  the  hives,  where  the  cakes  have  grown 
old.  The  principal  honey  harvest  takes  place  towards  the  end 
of  May,  June,  or  July,  according  to  the  place  the  hives  are  in. 
A  larger  or  smaller  gathering  takes  place  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  honey  ready,  and  the  state  of  the  season.  As  the  bees 
will  not  see  the  violation  of  their  domicile  and  theft  of  their 


Fig.  330. — Hives  under  the  shade  of  trees. 

winter  provisions  without  anger,  to  get  possession  of  the  honey- 
comb with  which  the  hive  is  filled,  you  must  put  these  irritable 
insects  into  such  a  state  that  they  are  unable  to  injure  you.  They 
can  be  rendered  peaceable  by  smoking  them.  The  smoke  is 
forced  into  the  hive  with  the  assistance  of  a  pair  of  bellows,  the 
arrangement  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  331.  If  the  fumigation 
is  prolonged,  the  bees  are  very  soon  heard  to  beat  their  wings  in 
a  peculiar  manner ;  they  are  then  in  what  is  called  in  French 
etat  de  bruissement,  or  roaring  state.  When  they  stand  up  on 

*  "  Physiologic  de  1'abeille,  suivie  de  1'art  de  soigner  et  d' exploiter  les  abeilles, 
d'apres  une  methode  simple,  facile."     Paris,  1866.     Page  94. 


358  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

their  hind  legs  and  agitate  their  wings,  you  can  do  with  them 
almost  anything  you  like — cut  away  the  honeycomb,  abstract  the 
eggs,  or  take  out  the  honey — without  their  troubling  themselves 


Fig.  331.— Bellows  used  to  stupify  Bees. 

about  it.  But  this  state  of  things  must  not  last  too  long,  or  you 
may  suffocate  your  bees.  It  is  a  sort  of  anaesthesis  into  which 
the  bees  have  been  thrown ;  and  as  with  men  this  must  not  be 
prolonged. 

Some  bee-keepers,  in  order  to  collect  the  honey  harvest,  stupify 
their  bees  by  burning  sulphur  matches.  This  is  a  bad  practice. 
"Those  authors  who  recommend  us  to  suffocate  the  bees,"  says 
M.  Hamet,  "under  the  pretext  that  their  colonies  will  become 
too  numerous,  and  who  add,  '  You  cannot  eat  beef  without  killing 
the  ox/  are  more  stupid  than  the  animal  they  have  chosen  for 
their  comparison."  A  hive  often  produces  from  twelve  to  twenty 
pounds  of  honey  each  year,  and  an  almost  equal  quantity  of  wax. 
It  may,  then,  furnish  to  the  bee-keeper  an  important  revenue, 
especially  as  the  rearing  of  bees  gives  scarcely  any  trouble,  and 
involves  scarcely  any  labour,  as  it  is  only  necessary  to  select  a 
spot  with  a  proper  exposure  and  well-supplied  with  flowers. 

We  possess  in  Europe  two  species  or  races  of  bees  —  the 
Common  bee  (Apis  mellifica) ,  and  the  Ligurian  bee  (Apis  ligus- 
tica),  whose  abdomen  is  tawny,  with  the  rings  bordered  with 
black.  It  is  this  species  of  which  Virgil  sang,  and  which  is  found 
in  Italy  and  Greece.  It  has  been  remarked  that  the  Ligurian  bee 
pierces  the  calices,  at  their  bases,  of  those  flowers  which  are  too 
long  for  it  to  penetrate  into  easily,  and  thus  gets  possession  of 
the  honey,  whilst  the  common  bees  pass  these  flowers  over.  This 
observation  proves  that  the  former  is  the  more  intelligent  of  the 
two  races.  In  Egypt  a  bee  is  reared  called  the  Banded  bee  (Apis 
fasciata). 

Ten  or  twelve  other  species  of  honey-bees  exist  in  Senegal,  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Madagascar,  East  Indies,  at  Timor  (Apis 
Peronii),  &c.  The  European  bee  has  been  acclimatised  in 


HYMENOPTEEA.  359 

America,  but  it  soon  returns  to  its  wild  state,  as  indeed  do  all 
our  domestic  animals  when  transported  to  the  other  hemisphere. 
At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Hottentots  seek  greedily  after 
the  nests  of  wild  bees,  a  bird  called  the  Indicator  guiding 
them  in  this  chase.  This  bird  comes  of  its  own  accord  towards 
the  savages,  and  is  observed  flitting  about  from  tree  to  tree, 
making  a  little  significant  cry.  They  have  only  then  to  follow 
this  bird-informer,  for  it  will  not  be  long  in  stopping  before 
some  hollow  tree  which  contains  a  nest  of  bees.  The  Hottentots 
always  acknowledge  its  services  by  leaving  it  a  part  of  the  booty. 

Fenimore  Cooper,  the  novelist,  tells  us,  in  his  work  entitled 
"The  Prairie,"  how  the  bee-hunters  in  America  discover  the 
wild  hives.  They  place  on  a  plank,  covered  with  white  paint 
still  moist,  a  piece  of  bread  covered  with  sugar  or  honey.  The 
bees,  in  plundering  this  bread,  get  some  of  the  paint  on  their 
bodies,  and  are  then  more  easily  tracked  when  they  return  to 
their  hives.  In  North  America  they  are,  as  it  were,  the  har- 
bingers of  civilisation.  When  the  Indians  perceive  a  swarm 
trying  to  establish  themselves  in  the  solitudes  of  their  forests, 
they  say  to  one  another,  "The  white  man  is  approaching;  he 
will  soon  be  here."  True  pioneers  of  civilisation,  these  insects 
seem  to  announce  to  the  forests  and  deserts  of  the  New  World 
that  the  reign  of  nature  has  passed  away,  and  that  now  the 
social  state  has  begun  to  play  its  part — a  part  that  will  never 
end. 

The  bees  peculiar  to  South  America  have  no 
sting:  these  are  the  Meliponas.  These  (Fig. 
332)  are  more  compactly  formed  than  our  bees, 
have  a  more  hairy  body,  and  are  smaller  in  size. 
Very  numerous  in  the  virgin  forests,  they  make 
their  nests  in  the  hollows  of  trees.  The  wax  produced  by  them 
is  brown,  and  of  an  indifferent  quality.  Under  thick  leaves  of 
wax  are  found  cakes,  with  hexagonal  cells,  containing  the  males, 
females,  and  neuters.  The  cells  of  the  larvae  are  closed  by  the 
workers,  and  the  larvae  spin  themselves  a  cocoon  inside.  All 
around  the  cradles  are  large  round  cells,  entirely  different  in  form 
from  the  cradles,  in  which  the  honey  is  stored.  It  is  probable 
that  the  males,  the  workers,  and  the  females,  live  together  in 


360  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

great  harmony,  and  even  that  there  is  in  each  nest  more  than 
one  female,  for  the  absence  of  the  sting  must  prevent  any  combats. 
If  a  few  cakes  of  the  Melipona's  honeycomb  are  moved  into 
the  hollow  of  a  tree,  they  always  found  there  a  new  'colony.  We 
may  conclude  from  this  that  the  workers  procure  for  themselves 
females  whenever  they  want  them  by  means  of  a  special  sort 
of  food.  The  savage  inhabitants  of  the  American  forests  collect 
this  honey ;  but  with  the  carelessness  of  uncivilised  man,  they  at 
the  same  time  destroy  the  nests  of  these  precious  insects.  They 
have  now  begun  to  domesticate  certain  species  of  Meliponas  by 
introducing  them  into  earthen  pots  or  wooden  cases.  These 
insects  have  been  brought  to  Europe,  but  they  have  always 
perished  in  the  first  cold  weather.  During  the  summer  of  1863, 
there  was,  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  of  Paris,  a  nest  of 
Melipona  scutellaris  from  Brazil ;  but  it  did  not  prosper. 

«* 

THE  HUMBLE  OR  BUMBLE  BEES. 

If  in  the  month  of  March  one  passes  through  the  fields,  which 
are  beginning  to  get  green,  or  through  the  woods,  still  deprived 
of  their  leaves,  there  may  be  seen  hovering  hither  and  thither  great 
hairy  insects,  resembling  gigantic  bees.  These  are  the  females 
of  the  humble  bee,  called  by  the  French  "  bourdons,"  from  the 
buzzing  noise  they  produce.  These  females  have  been  awakened 
by  the  spring  sun.  They  examine  the  cavities  of  stones,  the 
heaps  of  moss,  and  the  holes  hollowed  out  by  the  rabbits  and 
squirrels,  seeking  for  a  suitable  spot  to  construct  a  nest  for  their 
progeny. 

The  humble  bees  are  of  the  same  family  as  the  bees,  whom  they 
resemble  in  their  organization.  Like  them,  they  are  divided  into 
males,  females,  and  neuters,  or  workers.  But  their  companies  only 
last  a  year.  At  the  end  of  autumn,  the  whole  population  has 
become  extinct,  with  the  exception  of  the  pregnant  females,  which 
pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpor,  at  the  bottom  of  some  hole, 
where  they  wait  till  the  spring  to  perpetuate  their  race.  Their 
societies  comprise  generally  only  a  small  number  of  individuals, 
from  fifty  to  three  hundred.  They  are  of  peaceful  habits,  their 
ephemeral  existence  beginning  and  ending  with  the  flower  season. 


HYMENOPTEEA.  361 

The  humble  bees  are  known  by  their  great  size,  their  short, 
robust  body,  encircled  by  bands  of  very  bright  colours,  and  by 
the  noise  they  make  in  flying.  Their  hind 
legs  are  armed  with  two  spurs.  The  females^ 
and  the  worker^  have  e  same  organization 
for  plundering  flowers  as  the  bees  have  : 
they  have  their  trunks  and  their  legs  fitted 
with  brushes  and  baskets  for  gathering 
pollen.  The  males,  like  the  males  of  hive 
bees,  have  no  sting.  The  greater  number 
have  their  dwelling- places  under  ground ;  others  make  their  nests 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  in  the  cracks  of  wells,  in  heaps  of 
stones,  &c.  The  former  establish  themselves  in  cavities  situated 
as  far  as  half  a  yard  under  grolmd7  and  approached  by  a  long 
narrow  gallery.  It  is  almost  always  a  solitary  female  who  has 
been  the  architect  of  the  nest.  She  cleans  out  the  cavity  she 
has  chosen,  makes  it  as  smooth .  as  possible,  and  lines  it  with 
leaves  and  moss,  to  embellish  the  subterranean  house  in  which 
she  is  to  pass  nearly  all  her  existence. 

The  Moss  humble  bee  (Bombus  muscorum),  called  also  the  Carding 
bee,  chooses  an  excavation  of  very  little  depth  in  which  to  make  its 
nest,  or  else  itself  undertakes  the  hollowing  out  of  a  hole  in  the 
ground.  It  covers  this  with  a  dome  of  moss  or  dry  herbs.  But 
it  does  not  fly  when  transporting  the  moss,  it  drags  it  along  the 
ground,  with  its  back  turned  towards  the  south.  Having  seized  a 
packet  of  the  moss,  it  sets  to  work  to  draw  out  the  bits  with  its  man- 
dibles, and  then  pushing  them  under  its  body,  throws  them  in  the 
direction  of  the  nest  by  a  sort  of  kick  from  its  hind  legs.  Sometimes, 
towards  the  end  of  the  season,  many  humble  bees  are  to  be  seen 
working  in  line.  The  first  seizes  the  moss,  and  after  having  carded 
it,  passes  it  under  its  body,  and  throws  it  to  the  second,  which 
throws  it  on  v>  the  third,  and  so  on,  up  to  the  nest.  When  the 
materials  are  ready,  the  insect  makes  use  of  them  to  manufac- 
ture a  sort  of  hemispherical  lid  or  covering  resembling  felt,  which 
shuts  the  nest  in,  and  is  lined  with  wax.  If  you  lift  up  this  cover- 
ing or  small  dome,  which  it  is  not  dangerous  to  do,  for  humble 
bees  are  not  very  aggressive,  you  find  beneath  it  a  nest,  composed 
of  a  coarse  comb,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  vault  of  wax. 


362  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

The  cells  which  compose  the  nest,  and  which  are  to  receive 
the  larvae  of  the  insect,  are  of  an  oval  shape,  and  of  a  pale  yellow 
or  even  of  a  blackish  colour.  Fig.  334  represents  these  cells. 


Fig.334.— Cells  from  a  Humble  Bee's  nest. 

The  wax  of  which  they  are  composed  has  none  of  the  qualities  of 
that  of  hive  bees,  but  is  soft,  sticky,  and  brownish. 

When  the  mother  humble  bee,  which  at  first  was  alone  and  built 
her  house  single-handed,  has  made  a  certain  number  of  cells,  she 
seeks  for  honey  and  pollen  and  prepares  a  paste,  which  she  deposits 
in  the  future  cradles.  She  then  lays  six  or  seven  eggs  in  each. 
The  larvae  which  come  from  them  live  in  common,  at  the  same 
table,  under  the  same  tent.  The  cell  is  at  first  only  the  size  of  a 
pea ;  it  soon  becomes  too  narrow,  splits  and  cracks,  and  requires 
to  be  enlarged  and  repaired  many  times,  a  work  of  which  our 
industrious  insects  acquit  themselves  with  a  good  deal  of  care  and 
attention.  Before  passing  into  the  pupa  state,  each  larva  spins  for 
itself  a  shell  or  cocoon  of  very  fine  white  silk.  It  ceases  to  eat, 
remains  at  first  rolled  up,  then  expands  itself  little  by  little,  and 
changes  its  skin  after  three  days.  It  passes  fifteen  days  in  the 
pupa  state  in  a  quiescent  condition.  After  the  normal  time  has 
elapsed  for  it  to  remain  in  its  hiding-place,  it  delivers  itself  from 
its  mummy- like  covering,  with  the  help  of  the  mother  or  the 
workers.  The  humble  bee  then  appears,  robust,  and  its  body 
covered  with  a  greyish  down. 

When  the  successive  hatchings  have  furnished  to  the  mother 
the  reinforcement  she  is  waiting  for,  the  workers  she  has  laid 


HYMENOPTEEA. 


363 


occupy  themselves  in  building  new  cells,  and  in  raising  the  wall 
of  enclosure  which  is  to  protect  the  nest.  This  wall,  formed  of 
wax,  starts  from  the  base  and  raises  itself,  like  a  vertical  rampart, 
from  every  point  in  the  circumference.  They  then  surmount 
this  by  the  first  roof,  which  is  flat, .  supported  by  some  pillars, 
and  in  which  they  have  left  one  or  two  irregular  openings.  •  The 
whole  is  finally  protected  by  a  hemispherical  covering  of  moss, 
made  into  a  sort  of  felt  and  lined  with  wax.  Fig.  335  represents, 
in  its  entirety,  a  nest  of  this  humble  bee. 


Fig.  335.— Nest  of  the  Moss  Humble  Bee  (Bombusmuscorum). 

• 

The  workers  also  take  their  part  in  rearing  the  eggs.  They 
bring  the  paste,  which  they  slip  into  the  cells  to  the  larvae  by 
a  small  hole,  which  is  shut  immediately  afterwards.  Later,  they 
again  give  their  assistance  in  disengaging  the  pupae  from  their 
envelopes.  In  short,  they  make  themselves  generally  useful  ; 


364  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

but  they  have  one  bad  fault :  they  are  very  fond  of  eating  the 
eggs  laid  by  the  mother.  They  try  to  seize  them  as  she  deposits 
them,  or  drag  them  from  the  cells,  and  suck  their  contents.  And 
so  the  mother  is  obliged  to  be  incessantly  defending  her  eggs 
against  the  voracity  of  the  workers,  and  to  be  constantly  on 
her  guard,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  drive  away  these  marauders  from 
cells  newly  filled. 

"We  owe  to  an  English  naturalist,  Newport,  the  knowledge  of 
another  curious  fact  relating  to  the  laying  of  humble  bees,  which 
is  the  expedient  the  females  and  the  males  have  recourse  to  for 
hastening  the  hatching  of  the  eggs.  They  place  themselves,  like 
fowls  sitting  on  their  eggs,  over  the  wax  shells  containing  the  pupae 
almost  hatched.  By  breathing  quickly,  these  industrious  insects 
raise  the  temperature  of  their  bodies,  and  consequently  that  of  the 
air  in  the  cells.  Thanks  to  this  supplementary  heat,  the  meta- 
morphpsis  of  the  pupae  is  much  hastened.  Newport,  by  slipping 
miniature  thermometers  between  the  shells  of  the  nymphs  and  the 
sitting  humble  bees,  ascertained  that  the  temperature  of  the  latter 
was  about  34°  C.,  whilst  the  temperature  of  the  shells  left  to 
themselves  was  only  27°  C. ;  that  of  the  air  in  the  rest  of  the 
nest  being  only  from  21°  to  24°  C.  After  many  hours  of  incuba- 
tion, at  the  same  time  natural  and  artificial,  in  which  art  and 
nature  are  so  closely  allied,  after  the  sitting  insects  have  many 
times  relieved  one  another,  the  young  humble  bees  come  out  of 
their  shells.  They  are  at  first  soft,  greyish,  wet,  and  very  sus- 
ceptible to  cold.  But  after  a  few  hours  they  become  stronger, 
and  the  yellow  and  black  bands  with  which  their  abdomens  are 
surrounded  begin  to  be  marked  out.  The  spring  laying  produces 
exclusively  workers.  The  greatest  abundance  of  eggs  are  laid  in 
August  and  September.  The  laying  of  the  female  eggs  begins  in 
July  ;  that  of  the  males  follows  soon  after. 

Until  autumn,  the  humble  bees  are  incessantly  enlarging  their 
nests,  and  multiplying  their  little  pots  of  honey.  "Without  accu- 
mulating a  great  stock  of  provisions,  which  they  would  not  be  able 
to  dispose  of,  they  always  keep  in  reserve  a  quantity  of  pollen  and 
honey  for  their  daily  wants.  The  cells  in  which  the  honey  is  stored 
differ  very  much  in  shape.  Some  species  of  humble  bees  give  them 
long  and  narrow  necks ;  others,  less  recherche  in  their  style  of  con- 


HYMENOPTEEA.  365 

struction,  simply  make  cylindrical  vases.  There  are  among  the 
humble  bees  races  of  artists  and  races  of  simple  builders  :  the  one 
construct  with  taste,  the  other  only  seek  the  useful. 

During  the  day,  the  humble  bees  cull  honey  from  the  flowers. 
At  night  they  enter  their  home ;  but  a  certain  number  take  the 
liberty  of  sleeping  out.  Surprised  by  the  arrival  of  night,  in 
the  bottom  of  the  calix  of  a  sweetly- scented  flower,  they  philo- 
sophically determine  to  sleep  in  the  open  air,  lying  on  this 
perfumed  bed,  with  the  heaven  as  their  canopy. 

The  coupling  of  the  humble  bees  takes  place  towards  the  end  of 
September.  It  costs  the  males  their  life,  as  it  does  with  the  hive 
bees.  The  impregnated  females  do  not  lay  till  the  following 
spring  ;  it  is  they  who,  after  the  winter  is  passed,  will  become  the 
mothers  of  new  generations.  They  will  take  the  reins  of  the  family 
when  the  mother  who  founded  the  colony,  the  males,  as  also  the 
workers,  shall,  according  to  the  laws  of  nature,  have  passed  away. 
There  are  often,  on  the  other  hand,  some  workers  which,  born  in 
the  spring,  become  fruitful,  and  lay  the  same  year,  but  only  the 
eggs  of  males.  These  become  a  butt  for  the  jealousy  of  the 
reigning  mother,  who  pursues  them  with  fury  and  devours  their 
eggs.  These,  however,  have  themselves  cruel  hearts.  Animated 
by  a  profound  jealousy,  they  dispute  the  occupancy  of  the  cells 
savagely,  so  as  to  be  able  to  lay  a  few  eggs  in  them,  which  are  no 
sooner  laid  than  they  are  destroyed  by  their  savage  sisters.  How- 
ever, they  never  make  use  of  their  stings  in  any  of  these  attacks. 
The  humble  bee  population  is  peaceful,  even  in  its  combats. 
After  the  first  cold  weather  in  autumn,  all  these  insects,  as  we 
have  said,  perish,  except  the  pregnant  females.  These  privileged 
depositaries  of  the  race,  spem  altera  domi,  look  for  a  place  of 
retreat,  and  there  sleep  till  the  following  spring.  Then  they  wake 
up  and  found  new  colonies,  which  continue  the  race. 

For  a  long  while  were  confounded  with  the  humble  bees  certain 
insects  which  have  the  same  appearance,  that  is  to  say,  a  hairy 
body,  with  bands  of  various  colours,  but  whose  hind  legs  are 
adapted  neither  for  gathering  honey  nor  for  building.  These  are 
the  genus  Psithyrus ;  it  was  Lepelletier  de  Saint-Far geau  who 
discovered  their  true  position.  These  are  parasites,  and  only 
consist  of  males  and  fertile  females,  without  workers.  They  lay 


366  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  the  humble  bee.  They  are,  indeed,  so 
like  their  hosts,  that  they  can  introduce  themselves  into  their 
dwellings  without  raising  any  suspicion.  The  humble  bees  admit 
them  freely,  and  receive  them  as  if  they  belonged  to  the  family ; 
so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the  poor  humble  bees  themselves  bring  up 
the  larvae  of  these  impudent  guests.  In  the  Order  Hymenoptera, 
one  meets  with  many  examples  of  these  sorts  of  parasites  which 
install  their  progeny  in  the  nest  of  another  insect,  as- the  cuckoo 
does  in  the  nests  of  other  birds. 

SOLITARY  BEES. 

We  have  up  till  now  found  the  insects  of  the  great  family  of 
bees  collected  together  in  perfectly  organized  societies.  But  there 
are  a  great  number  of  species  of  this  family  which  live  alone. 
We  will  briefly  mention  the  most  interesting  of  them. 

The  females  of  the  solitary  bees  are  impregnated  like  those  of 
the  humble  bees,  at  the  end  of  September,  and  lay  in  spring,  after 
having  passed  the  winter  asleep.  They  build  a  nest  divided  into 
cells,  fill  it  with  eggs,  and  with  a  honied  paste  shut  it  up  and 
die,  without  having  seen  their  progeny  hatched. 

The  Anthophvras  (Figs.  336,  337,  338)  resemble  bees,  but  they 
are  more  hairy,  and  of  greyish  colour.  Their  nest,  composed  of 


Figs.  336,  337,  338.— Anthophora  parietina. 

earth  tempered  and  agglutinated  with  their  saliva,  is  made  in  the 
cracks  of  old  walls  or  in  the  ground.  It  has  the  form  of  a  twisted 
tube,  and  is  divided,  by  partitions,  into  compartments,  each  of 
which  is  to  receive  a  larva.  Each  insect,  when  hatched,  pierces  its 
own  wall,  and  profits  by  the  hole  of  exit  of  the  brother  which  pre- 
ceded it. 

These  insects  do  not  live   together  in  societies.      Indifferent 
neighbours,  they  do  not  lend  each  other  mutual  assistance.      They 


HYMENOPTEEA. 


307 


have  their  parasites,  like  the  Melectas,  the  humble  bees.  These 
are  hairy,  blackish  insects,  spotted  with  white,  laying  their  eggs 
in  the  nests  of  the  Anthophoras,  which  permit  them  to  do  so,  and,  at 
the  expense  of  their  own  progeny,  bring  up  the  intruder's  little 
ones. 

The  Carpenter  bee,  or  Wood-piercer  (Xylocopa),  hollows  out 
galleries  in  worm-eaten  wood,  and  builds  in  them  cells  placed  one 
over  the  other,  a  work  often  occupying  many  weeks.  She  then 
furnishes  the  bottom  of  the  cell  with  poUen^mixed  up  with  honey, 
lays  an  egg  in  the  noddle  of  this  paste,  /nd  closes  the  cell  by  a 
ceiling  of  sawdust  agglutinated  with  saliva.  On  this  ceiling  she 
establishes  a  new  cell,  and  so  on,  right  up  to  the  orifice,  which  she 
closes  in  the  same  manner.  Reaumur  is  astonished,  with  reason,  at 
the  admirable  instinct  which  2&&ke^tM  provident  mother  determine 


B 

X  BBHHHBHMHHMHMHB  * 

Fig.  33d.'— Carpenter  Bee,  Pujpse,  Eggs,  Galleries,  and  Nests. 

the  exact  quantity  of  nourishment  which  will  be  necessary  for  its 
larva.  When  this  has  absorbed  all  its  provision,  it  alone  quite 
fills  up  its  cell,  and  changes  into  a  pupa.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 


368 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


that  the  head  of  the  young  is  always  turned  downwards,  in 
such  a  way  that  it  is  by  the  bottom  of  its  cell  that  it  comes 
out.  The  bottom  of  the  first  is  very  near  the  surface  of  the 
wood,  so  that  the  insect  it  encloses  has  only  a  thin  layer  of  wood 
to  pierce  through  in  order  to  set  itself  free.  Each  one  of 
those  which  are  born  next  has  only  to  pierce  the  floor  of  its 
hiding-place  to  find  the  road  before  them  free.  The  Xylocopce 


the  wiutti  in  the  pupa  state,  and  the  perfect  insects,  with 
wings  of  a  beautiful  metallic  violet,  appear  in  the  spring,  but  are 
not  found  in  this  country. 

Other  solitary  bees  have  their  hind  legs  unsuited  for  the  gather- 
ing of  pollen,  but  have  the  rings  of  the  abdomen  furnished  with 
haijrs  for  thai  purpose.  Such  are  the  Mason  bees  of  Reaumur, 
belonging  to  the  genera  Osmia  and  Chalicodoma*  which  build  their 
nests  against  walls  of  tempered  earth,  which  become  very  hard. 

*  At  a  meeting  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London,  Feb.  18th,  1867,  Mr. 
Newman  exhibited  the  lock  of  a  door,  one  of  several  which,  in  1866,  were  found  at 
the  Kent  Waterworks,  Deptford,  to  be  completely  filled  and  choked  up  with  nests  of 


HYMENOPTERA. 


369 


These  nests  (Figs.  340  and  341)  are  filled  with  cells  of  oblong 
form  arranged  irregularly.  At  first  sight,  they  might  be  taken 
for  little  lumps  of  earth  plastered  against  the  wall.  When  the 
perfect  insect  emerges,  it  is  obliged  to  soften  the  mortar  with 
its  saliva,  and  to  remove  it,  grain  by  grain,  with  its  mandibles. 
The  nests  of  Chalicodomas  are  common  in  the  environs  of  Paris, 


Fig.  341.— Interior  of  the  Nest  of  the  Mason  Bee. 


exposed   to   the   south.       They   are 
parks   of    Meudon,    of  Conflans,    of 


3n  walls  of  rough  stones 
Dften  to  be  found  in  the 
Vesinet,  &c. 

The  Leaf-cutting  bees  (Megachile)  are  not  less  worthy  of  remark 
in  their  habits.  These  insects  make  their  nests  in  tubes  made  with 
the  leaves  of  the  rose,  the  pear,  the  elder,  &c.,  placed  in  a  cylindrical 
burrow.  Each  nest  contains  generally  from  three  to  six  cells,  sepa- 
rated by  partitions  of  leaves.  They  cut  oif  the  pieces  of  leaves 

Osmia  bicornis,  a  portion  of  the  nest  had  been  forced  out  by  the  insertion  of  the  key  ; 
;he  locks  were  in  pretty  constant  use,  so  that  the  nests  must  have  been  built  in  the 
jourse  of  a  few  days. — "  Journal  of  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of 
London,"  1867,  Ixxvi. — ED. 

B    B 


370 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


they  require  with  their  mandibles,  the  notches  being  wonderfully 
cleanly  cut,  as  if  they  had  been  done  with  a  punch. 

They  make  as  many  as  eight  or  ten  envelopes  in  succession  with 
the  leaves,  which,  as  they  get  dry,  contract,  keeping,  however,  the 


Fig.  342.— Eose  Megachile  (AL-r, 

form  given  to  them  by  the  insect.  The  cells  destined  to  receive 
the  eggs  acquire  thus  a  certain  solidity.  Fig.  342  represents  the 
nest  of  the  Megachile. 

The  Upholsterer  bees  (Autkocopas)  line  their  nests  with  the  petals 
of  flowers,  as,  for  example,  Authocopa  papaveris  of  the  corn-poppy. 
Their  burrows  are  made  perpendicularly  in 
the  beaten  earth  of  roads,  and  each  contains 
one  solitary  cell,  lined  with  portions  of 
petals.  When  the  egg  has  been  laid  at  the 
bottom  of  this  cell,  the  bee  fills  up  the  rest 
of  the  hole  with  earth  to  hide  it  from  notice. 
Fig.  343. -Gaiiery  of  mAndrena.  The  Mining  bees  (Andrena)  hollow  out  in 
the  ground  tubular  galleries  (Fig.  343).  They  are  not  larger 


HYMENOPTERA. 


371 


than  ordinary  flies.  A  great  number  of  other  bees  are  known, 
but  their  habits  are  little  understood,  and  we  shall  not  occupy  our- 
selves about  them. 

WASPS. 

Every  one  knows  the  wasps  as  a  race  of  dangerous  brigands 
which  live  by  rapine,  are  incessantly  fighting  battles,  and  which 


Fig.  344.— Wasps'  Nest. 

exist  only  to  do  harm.  However,  wasps,  like  Figaro,  are  better 
than  they  are  reputed  to  be.  Their  societies  are  admirably 
organized ;  their  nests  are  models  of  industry  and  artistic  fancy. 
They  have  even  certain  domestic  virtues  which  deserve  our 
esteem,  only  they  are  an  excitable  race  it  is  well  not  to  cross. 
If  great  heat  adds  to  their  natural  irritability,  they  savagely 
attack  those  who  annoy  them,  and  pursue  them  to  a  distance. 
No  one,  indeed,  is  ignorant  that  their  sting  is  very  painful.  In 

B  B  2 


372  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

cold  weather  and  towards  night,  they  are  less  vivacious  and  less  to 
be  dreaded. 

The  wasps  are  distinguished  from  the  bees  by  a  decided  charac- 
teristic. In  a  state  of  repose  they  fold  together  their  upper  wings, 
which  then  seem  very  narrow,  only  spreading  them  out  when  they 
are  about  to  fly ;  whilst  the  latter  when  at  rest  keep  their  upper 
wings  spread  out. 

Wasps  live  in  companies,  which  last  only  a  year,  and  are  com- 
posed of  males,  females,  and  workers.  But  the  female  wasp  does 
not  pass  her  entire  life  in  idleness,  as  a  queen,  like  the  mother 
hive  bee.  She  occupies  herself  in  making  the  nest  and  in  taking 
care  of  the  young,  like  the  mother  humble  bee.  The  males  have 
also  their  duties.  They  watch  over  the  cleanliness  of  the  habita- 
tion, and  are  the  sanitary  commissioners  and  undertakers  to  the 


Fig.  345. — Common  Wasp  ( Vespa  vulgaris).  Fig.  346. — Bush  W<isp  (  Vespn,  rufa). 

city.     These  are  easily  recognised  by  their  oblong  bodies,  having 
so  slight  a  connection  with  the  thorax,  as  it  were  by  a  thread. 

Their  sting  is  larger  than  that  of  the  bees,  and  is  supplied  with 
poison  from  a  pouch  placed  at  its  base.  The  males  have  110  sting. 
Wasps  do  not  secrete  wax.  With  their  mandibles  they  cut  vege- 
tables and  plants,  the  fragments  of  which  they  agglutinate 
together  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  tough  cardboard.  Thus 
they  invented  the  manufacture  of  paper  long  before  men.  Charles 
de  Geer,  in  his  celebrated  work,  sums  up  the  habits  of  these 
insects  in  the  following  manner: — "Wasps,"  says  he,  "are,  like 
bees,  fond  of  sweets  and  honey,  although  they  rarely  seek  them 
in  flowers  ;  but  their  principal  food  consists  in  matters  of  quite  a 
different  kind,  such  as  fruits  of  all  kinds,  raw  flesh,  and  live  insects, 
which  they  seize  and  devour.  They  sometimes  do  dreadful  damage 
in  beehives,  devouring  the  honey,  and  killing  the  bees.  They  do 
not  gather  wax ;  their  nests  and  their  combs  are  composed  of  a 
matter  resembling  grey  paper,  which  they  get  from  rotten  wood, 


HYMENOPTEBA. 


373 


and  which  they  scrape  off  with  their  teeth ;  they  make  a  sort  of 
paste  of  these  scrapings  by  moistening  them  with  a  certain  liquid 
which  they  disgorge.  The  cells  in  the  combs  are  hexagonal,  and 
very  regular,  like  those  of  bees/'* 

Before  beginning  to  build,  the  wasps  heap  up  the  materials 
near  the  place  where  they  have  chosen  to  establish  their  domicile. 
These  materials  are  ligneous  fibre,  mixed  up  with  saliva,  with  the 
aid  of  which  these  insects  prepare  the  paper-like  substance,  which 
is  very  tough,  and  destined  to  form  the  walls  of  the  cells  and  thei? 
exterior  covering.  The  greater  number  make  their  habitation  ii 
the  ground.  Of  these  is  our  common  wasp  ( Vespa  vulgaris),  which 
is  black,  agreeably  contrasted  with  bright  yellow.  The  Bush  or 
Russet  wasp  (Vespa  rufa),  which  inhabits  woods,  constructs  its 
nest  between  the  branches  of  shrubs  or  bushes.  It  is  smaller 
than  the  common  species,  and  its  abdomen  is  of  a  russet  colour. 
The  Hornet  is  the  largest  European  species  of  the  family  of  the 
Vespidce.  The  substance  of  its  nest  is  yellowish,  and  very  fragile, 


Fig.  347.— The  Hornet  ( Vespa  crabro). 

and  is  constructed  under  a  roof,  in  a  loft,  or  in  the  hole  of 
an  old  wall,  but  most  often  in  the  hollow  of  a  worm-eaten  tree. 
Another  species  of  this  family  (Polistes  gallica,  Fig.  348)  fixes 
its  little  nest  by  a  foot- stalk  to  the  stem  of  some  plant. 

Wasps  begin  laying  in  spring,  and  go  on 
laying  all  the  summer.  Each  cell  receives  one 
single  egg,  and,  as  with  bees,  the  workers' 
eggs  are  the  first  laid.  Eight  days  after  the 
laying,  there  comes  out  of  each  egg  a  larva 
without  feet,  and  already  provided  with  two 
mandibles.  These  Iarva3  receive  their  food  in 
the  form  of  balls,  which  the  females  or  the 
workers  knead  up  with  their  mandibles  and  their  legs  before  pre- 

*  "  M&noires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  des  Insectes."     Stockholm,  1771.     In  4to., 
tome  ii.,  p.  765. 


374  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

sentiug  to  their  nurslings,  very  nearly  in  the  same  way 
as  birds  give  their  beak  full  of  food  to  their  little  ones.  At 
the  end  of  three  weeks  the  larvae  cease  to  take  food,  and 
begin  to  shut  themselves  up  in  their  cells,  the  interior  of  which 
they  line  with  a  coating  of  silk.  In  this  they  change  their  form, 
and  assume  the  appearance  of  the  perfect  insect,  with 
its  six  legs  and  its  wings,  but  motionless,  and  con- 
tracted together.  A  sort  of  bag  keeps  all  the  organs 
swathed  up  together  (Fig.  349).  This  pupa  state  lasts 
for  eight  or  nine  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 

Fig.  349.— Pupa  ^     .  . 

of  the  common  insect  is  fully  developed ;  it  casts  its  skin,  breaks  the 
door  of  its  prison,  and  launches  itself  into  the  air.  A 
cell  is  no  sooner  abandoned  than  a  worker  visits,  cleans  it,  and 
puts  it  in  a  fit  state  to  receive  another  egg. 

During  the  summer  the  female  wasp  remains  constantly  in  the 
nest,  absorbed  with  family  cares.  She  is  occupied  in  laying  eggs 
and  in  feeding  her  progeny,  with  the  actrve  assistance  of  the 
workers,  or  mules,  as  Reaumur  and  Charles  de  Geer  call  them, 
because  they  are  unfruitful. 

In  the  interior  of  the  nests  you  generally  find  the  most  perfectly 
good  understanding  existing,  and  the  most  perfect  order,  in  spite  of 
the  warlike  instincts  of  these  insects.  It  is  only  on  rare  occasions 
that  this  domestic  peace  is  disturbed  by  the  quarrels  of  male  with 
male  or  worker  with  worker ;  but  these  combats  are  not  deadly. 
Never,  moreover,  has  one  nest  of  wasps  been  known  to  declare 
war  against  another  for  the  purpose  of  robbing  it.  "  The  govern- 
ment of  wasps,"  says  M.  Victor  Kendu,  "  explains  very  well  the 
gentleness  of  their  public  conduct.  Amongst  them  there  are  no 
despots ;  no  one  either  reigns  or  governs ;  each  one  lives  at 
liberty  in  a  free  city,  on  the  sole  condition  of  never  being  a 
burden  to  the  state.  They  all  act  in  concert,  without  privileges 
or  monopolies,  under  the  influence  of  a  common  law — the  great 
law  of  the  public  good,  from  which  no  one  is  exempted."  * 

But  this  model  republic  is  fatally  doomed  to  early  destruction. 
At  the  approach  of  winter  all  the  workers,  as  also  all  the  males, 
perish.  Some  pregnant  females  alone  hold  out  against  the  cold,  and 
get  through  the  winter,  to  propagate  and  perpetuate  their  species. 

*"  L'Intelligence  des  Betes."     In  18mo.     Paris,  1864. 


HYMENOPTEBA. 


375 


Before  dying,  these  insects  destroy  all  the  larvae  which  are  not 
hatched  at  the  first  approach  of  cold  weather.  In  spring  the  females 
revive,  and  begin  alone  the  construction  of  a  new  nest.  They  then 
lay  workers'  eggs,  which  are  not  long  in  furnishing  them  a  whole 
regiment  of  devoted  and  active  assistants.  These  traits  are  pretty 
nearly  the  same  for  the  different  species  of  wasps,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  in  the  way  in  which  they  build  their  nests. 

We  have  already  said  that  the  common  wasp  makes  its  nest  in 


Fig.  350. — Exterior  of  Wasps'  Nest  on  a  branch  of  a  tree. 

the  ground.  A  gallery,  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
leads  to  the  nest,  situated  at  a  depth  which  varies  from  six  inches 
to  two  feet.  "It  is,"  says  Reaumur,  "a  small  subterranean  town, 
which  is  not  built  in  the  style  of  ours,  but  which  has  a  symmetry 
of  its  own.  The  streets  and  the  dwelling-places  are  regularly 
distributed.  It  is  even  surrounded  with  walls  on  all  sides.  I 


376 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


do  not  give  this  name  to  the  sides  of  the  hollow  in  which  it  is 
situated ;  the  walls  I  allude  to  are  only  walls  of  paper,  but  strong 
enough,  nevertheless,  for  the  uses  for  which  they  are  intended." 
Generally,  the  shape  of  the  outside  of  a  wasp's  nest  is  spherical 
or  oval,  sometimes  conical.  Its  diameter  is  about  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  inches,  its  surface,  which  resembles  a  mass  of  bivalve 
shells,  has  one  hole  for  entrance,  and  another  for  exit,  just  large 
enough  to  allow  of  one  single  wasp  passing  in  or  out  at  the  same 
time  (Fig.  350). 

The  wasps'  nest  is  composed,  in  the  interior,  of  fifteen  or  sixteen 


Fig.  351.— Interior  of  Wasps'  JS'est,  after  Reaumur. 

horizontal  galleries,  arranged  in  stories,  and  supported  by  numerous 
pillars  of  separation.  We  give  here  (Fig.  351)  a  section  and  view 
of  the  interior,  drawn  from  memory  by  Reaumur.*  The  cakes 
forming  the  comb  are  composed  of  hexagonal  cells,  which  are 
always  used  as  cradles,  never  as  storehouses.  They  open  below. 

*  Tome  vi.,  planche  14,  p.  167. 


HYMENOPTEEA.  377 

The  exterior  envelope  of  the  nest  is  made  with  leaves  of  a  sort 
of  greyish,  very  gummy  paper,  which  is  applied  layer  by  layer. 
Reaumur  has  given  a  very  detailed  account  of  the  way  in  which 
these  insects  construct  their  nests.*  They  collect  fibres  of 
wood,  which  are  their  raw  material ;  make  them  into  a  sort  of 
coarse  lint,  which  they  reduce  to  balls,  and  carry  between  their 
legs  to  the  nest.  These  balls  are  next  stuck  on  to  the  work 
already  begun.  Then  the  insect  stretches  them  out,  flattens  them, 
and  draws  them  into  thin  layers,  as  a  bricklayer  spreads  mortar 
with  his  trowel.  The  wasp  works  with  extreme  quickness,  always 
backwards,  so  that  it  may  have  incessantly  before  its  eyes  the 
work  it  has  done  ;  the  movement  of  its  mandibles  is  even  quicker 
than  that  of  its  legs. 

Towards  the  end  of  summer  the  nest  may  contain  three  thousand 
workers,  and  as  many  females,  who  live  together  in  perfect  har- 
mony. The  number  of  males  equals  that  of  the  females.  A 
female  weighs,  by  herself,  as.  much  as  three  males,  or  six  workers. 
With  the  exception  of  those  which  are  occupied  in  building 
and  in  taking  care  of  the  eggs,  all  the  wasps  go  out  hunting 
during  the  day.  They  are  carnivorous,  and  may  be  seen  attack- 
ing other  insects,  which  they  tear  to  pieces  after  having  killed, 
so  as  to  carry  the  bits  to  their  nests,  where  thousands  of  mouths 
are  clamouring  for  their  food.  The  wasp  pays  great  attention  to 
the  vines.  It  penetrates  also  into  the  interior  of  our  houses,  and 
infests  the  butchers*  shops ;  but  this  the  butchers  do  not  much 
mind,  for  the  wasp  drives  away  the  flies,  which  would  lay  their 
eggs  on  the  meat,  and  thus  contribute  to  its  corruption. 

As  the  winter  approaches,  the  wasps  go  out  less  and  less,  and 
very  soon  cease  to  do  so  at  all.  The  greater  number  then  die, 
huddled  up  in  their  nest.  A  few  females  only,  as  we  have  said, 
get  through  the  cold  season.  They  sleep  with  their  wings  and 
legs  folded  up,  which  gives  them  the  appearance  of  chrysalides. 
They  can  nevertheless  sting  in  this  state,  as  M.  Guerin-Meneville 
found  out  to  his  cost.  The  spring  wakes  them  up,  and  they  then 
found  new  colonies.  "It  is  at  this  season,"  says  M.  Maurice 
Girard,  in  his  book  on  the  Metamorphoses  of  Insects,  "  that,  with 
a  little  trouble,  it  would  be  easy  to  diminish  in  a  very  perceptible 

*  "  Memoires,"  tome  vi.,  p.  177. 


378  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

degree  the  number  of  wasps,  which  are.  later,  so  destructive  to 
the  fruit,  by  catching  in  nets  the  females,  which  might  be  attracted 
in  quantities  by  means  of  the  blossom  of  the  black  currant."  This 
is  a  useful  hint  to  gardeners. 

The  Hornets  are  distinguished  from  other  wasps  by  their  great 
size.  They  make  their  nests  in  the  trunks  of  old  trees,  perforating 
the  sound  wood,  to  arrive  at  the  heart,  which  is  rotten,  or  hollow- 


rig.  352.— Hanging  Hornets'^Nest. 

ing  for  themselves  a  hole,  which  they  clear  out  by  the  gallery 
which  leads  to  it.  In  this  hole  they  construct  first  a  dome  sus- 
pended to  the  top  by  a  footstalk ;  then  a  series  of  combs  composed 
of  cells,  hanging  the  first  to  this  dome,  the  second  to  the  first,  and 
so  on,  by  stalks  or  pillars  of  a  paper-like  substance.  When  fixed 
under  roofs,  these  nests  have  often  the  form  of  an  elongated  pear. 
Fig.  352  represents  one  of  these  nests,  after  Reaumur.  The 
societies  of  hornets  contain  fewer  members  than  those  of  the 
common  wasp  ;  at  most  two  hundred  insects. 

The  Polistes  are  a  peculiar  kind  of  wasp,  smaller  than  the 
others,  slender,  with  the  abdomen  tapering  towards  the  base.  The 
construction  of  their  nests  is  more  simple,  having  no  envelopes,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  353.  They  attach  them  to  the  stems  of  broom, 
furze,  or  other  shrubs,  by  a  footstalk  or  pedicle.  They  are  like 


HYMENOPTEEA.  379 

little  paper  bouquets,  composed  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  cells 
grouped  in  a  circle. 


Fig.  353.-  Nest  of  Polistes  gallica. 

The  Card-making  wasp  of  Cayenne  (Charter  gus  nidulans,  Fig 
354)  is  a  consummate  artist.  Its  nest  represents  a  sort  of  box  or 
bag,  made  of  a  substance  resembling  card- 
board, so  fine  and  so  white  that  the  best 
worker  in  that  material  would  be  deceived 
by  it.  This  nest  has  only  one  single  hole 
at  its  base;  each  of  the  combs  it  contains 
is  likewise  pierced  by  a  hole  in  its  centre, 
to  afford  a  passage  to  the  wasps.  In  an  T\K.  354.— The  curd-making 

,.  *  . °  *_  Wasp  (Charter  (jus  nidulans). 

architectural  point  of  view,  the  card- 
making  wasp  is  almost  superior  to  the  bee,  for  the  latter  does  not 
build  its  house,  it  only  furnishes  it,  as  Latreille  remarks  with 
truth.  The  Brazilian  species  of  Chartergus,  which  the  in- 
habitants call  Lecheguana,*  manufactures  a  honey,  the  use  of 
which  is  not  without  danger,  as  it  occasions  vertigo  and  sharp 
pains  in  the  stomach.  The  naturalist,  Auguste  Saint- Hilaire, 
during  his  sojourn  in  Brazil,  himself  experienced  ill  effects  from 
eating  it. 

There  are,  moreover,  solitary  wasps,  which  make  their  cells  in 
holes  which  they  scoop  out  in  the  ground,  or  in  the  stalks  of 
certain  plants.  In  the  adult  state  these  live  on  honey ;  but  their 
larvae  are  carnivorous,  and  the  female  is  obliged  to  bring  them 
living  insects.  The  commonest  of  these  solitary  wasps  belong  to 

*  Hence  the  scientific  name,  Chartergus  lecheguana. — ED. 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


the   genus    Odynerus.     This  insect  makes  its  nest  in  the  stalk 
of  a  bramble  or  briar  (Fig.  358)    with  a  mortar  which  it  pre- 


Fig.  355.  -A  sptcies  of  Odynerua. 


Fig.   356.—  Larva  of  the 
Oilynerus. 


Fig.  357.— Pupsi  of 
the  Odynerus. 


pares. 


The  larva  (Fig.  356)  lines  its  cell  with  a  silky  cocoon. 
It  is  the  last  egg  laid  which  is 
hatched  the  first;  then  come  the 
others,  in  an  inverse  order  from 
that  in  which  they  were  deposited. 
\i  If  it  had  been  in  the  other  order, 

Fjg.3»8.—  Nest  of  an  Odynerus  in  the  stem    the     insects     Could     not     have    COme 

out  of  the   cells   without   destroy- 
ing on  their  way  the  less  advanced  pupae. 

ANTS. 

The  habits  of  the  Ants  are  as  remarkable  as  the  habits  of  the 
baes.  In  their  marvellous  republics  each  one  has  his  fixed  duties 
to  perform,  of  which  he  acquits  himself  willingly  and  without 
constraint.  In  consequence  of  their  habits  of  foresight  and  fru- 
gality, ease  reigns  in  the  dwellings  of  these  little  animals,  which 
become  attached  to  their  nest  by  a  feeling  of  patriotism.  Woe 
betide  him  who  disturbs  them  in  their  occupations,  or  destroys 
their  house.  Like  bees,  they  form  a  regular  republic,  composed 
—  first,  of  males  ;  secondly,  of  females  ;  thirdly,  of  neuters,  or 
workers.  We  shall  see,  further  on,  the  labours  and  the  part 
played  by  each  one  of  these  three  orders  of  the  republic.  Let 
us  speak  first  of  the  species. 

Ants  are  divided  into  a  great  number  of  species,  which  have 
been  carefully  described  by  De  Greer,  Latreille,  and  Francis  Huber, 
the  son  of  the  celebrated  blind  man  who  wrote  the  history  of  bees. 
All  these  species  have,  however,  some  general  traits  in  common, 
by  which  they  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  all  other  insects. 


HYMENOPTEEA. 


381 


Ants  liave  a  slim  body  on  long  legs.  The  workers  are  stouter 
and  smaller  than  the  males  ;  and  these  last  are  smaller  than  the 
females.  The  males  have  large  and  prominent  eyes,  whilst  the 
eyes  of  the  workers  and  females  are  small. 

Ants  are  provided  with  antennae,  bent  in  the  form  of  an 
elbow,  with  which  they  examine  everything  they  meet,  and 
which  seem  to  assist  them  in  the  communication  of  their  ideas. 
Two  horny,  very  strong  mandibles  serve  them  at  the  same  time  as 
pincers,  tweezers,  scissors,  pick- axe,  fork,  and  sword.  A  thin, 
short  neck  joins  the  head  to  the  thorax,  to  which,  in  the  case  of 
the  males  and  females,  are  attached  four  large  veiny  wings.  The 
workers  only  have  no  wings.  Of  the  three  pair  of  legs,  the 
hind  ones  are  the  longest.  Each  pair  is  armed  with  a  spur, 
and  fringed  with  very  short  hairs,  which  serve  the  purpose  of 
brushes.  The  abdomen,  fat,  short,  oval,  or  square,  is  always  most 
voluminous  in  the  females. 

There  are  three  genera  of  ants  which  we  shall  mention.  The 
Myrmicce  have  two  knobs  to  the  pedicle,  by  which  the  abdomen  is 
attached  to  the  thorax ;  the  Ponerce  only  one.  In  these  two 
genera,  the  females  and  the  neuters  have  a  sting,  and  the  larvae 


Fig.  359.— Red  ant.    Male  magnified 
(Myrntica  rvfa). 


Fig. 


3.  —  Red  ant.    Worker  magnified 
(Myrmica  rufa). 


do  not  spin  a  cocoon  in  which  to  change  into  pupa.  Lastly, 
the  Formica,  ants  property  so  called,  have  but  one  knob  on  the 
pedicle  of  the  abdomen,  as  in  Ponera ;  their  larvae  spin  a  silky 
cocoon.  They  have  no  sting,  but  they  pour  into  the  wounds 
made  by  their  mandibles  an  acid  liquor,  the  pungent  smell  of 
which  is  well  known.  This  liquid  is  formic  acid  ;  a  natural  pro- 
duct which  the  chemist  now-a-days  knows  how  to  make  artificially, 


382 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


by  the  combustion  of  ligneous  and  amylaceous  matters.  Their 
whole  body  is  impregnated  with  this  acid,  and  has  a  strong  sour 
smell.  Some  people  like  to  chew  ants,  on  account  of  their  sourish 
taste.  "  They  also  make,"  says  Charles  de  Geer,  "  creams  for 
side  dishes,  to  which  these  ants  give,  they  say,  the  taste  of  lemon- 
juice."  We  know,  in  the  south  of  France,  people  who  have 
eaten  these  cremes  aux  fourmis  !  Polyergus  forms  a  sub-genus  to 
Formica. 

In  all  these  species,  the  workers,  or  neuters,  have  the  charge 


Fig.  361.— Sections  of  an  Ants'  Nesl. 

of  the  building,  provisioning,  and  rearing  of  the  larvao,  in  fact, 
all  the  care  of  the  household,  and  the  defence  of  the  nest. 
Deprived  of  wings,  they  are  bound  to  the  soil,  and  condemned  to 
work.  As  compensation,  to  them  belong  strength,  authority, 
power :  nothing  is  done  but  through  them.  "  Born  protectors  of 
an  immense  family  still  in  the  cradle/'  says  M.  Victor  Rendu,  "by 
their  vigilance,  their  tenderness,  and  their  solicitude,  without 


HYMENOPTEEA.  383 

>eing  mothers  themselves,  they  share  in  the  duties  and  joy  of 
naternity.  Alone,  they  decide  on  peace  or  war ;  alone,  they  take 
part  in  combats :  head,  heart,  and  arm  of  the  republic,  they  ensure 
its  prosperity,  watch  over  its  defence,  found  colonies,  and  in  their 
works  show  themselves  great  and  persevering  artists." 

The  nests  of  ants  (Figs.  361,  362)  are  known  under  the  name 
of  ant-hills.  They  vary  very  much,  both  as  to  their  form,  and 
the  materials  employed  in  making  them :  wood  and  earth  are  the 
principal.  That  which  strikes  one  at  first  sight,  is  the  size 
•  of  these  dwellings,  which  forms  a  curious  contrast  to  the  smallness 
of  their  builders.  Each  species  of  ant  has  an  order  of  architec- 
ture peculiar  to  it.  The  Tawny,  or  Russet-coloured  ant  (Formica 
Tufa),  one  of  the  commonest  in  our  woods,  constructs  a  little 
rounded  hillock  with  all  kinds  of  objects,  fragments  of  wood,  bits 
of  straw,  dry  leaves,  grains  of  wheat,  the  remains  of  insects,  &c. 
This  hillock,  whose  base  is  protected  by  material  of  greater 
solidity,  is  nothing  more  than  the  exterior  envelope  of  the  nest, 
which  is  carried  underground  to  a  very  great  depth.  Avenues, 
cleverly  contrived,  lead  from  the  summit  to  the  interior.  The 
openings  vary  in  width  ;  and  as  night  approaches,  are  carefully 
barricaded.  They  are  opened  every  morning  except  on  rainy 
days,  when  the  doors  remain  shut,  and  the  inhabitants  confined 
within. 

The  ant-hill,  or  formicarium,  is  at  first  simply  a  hole  hollowed 
out  in  the  soil,  the  entrance  to  which  is  masked  by  the  building 
materials.  But  the  miners  do  not  cease  to  hollow  out  galleries 
and  chambers,  arranged  by  stories.  The  earth  and  rubbish  are 
carried  out,  and  serve  to  construct  the  upper  edifice,  which  rises  at 
the  same  time  that  the  excavation  grows  deeper.  It  is  a  laby- 
rinth bored  in  all  directions.  It  contains  corridors,  landings, 
chambers,  and  spacious  roomsj  which  communicate  with  each 
other  by  passages  which  are  often  vertical.  All  the  corridors 
lead  to  a  large  central  space,  loftier  than  the  others,  and  supported 
by  pillars ;  it  is  here  that  the  greater  number  of  the  ants  congre- 
gate. These  ant-hills  often  rise  to  a  height  of  fifteen  inches  above 
the  ground,  and  descend  to  an  equal  depth.  The  figure  shows  the 
interior  of  an  ant-hill,  drawn  from  nature.  Outside  it  are  to  be 
seen  some  ants,  occupied  in  sucking  plant-lice. 


302.— Section  of  an  Ant-hill. 


HYMENOPTERA.  385 

The  group  of  Mason  ants  contains  a  great  number  of  varieties  : 
the  Ashy-black  ant  (Formica  fusca,  Fig.  363),  the  Brown,  the  Yel- 
low (Formica  jZava),  the  Blood- red,  the  Russety  (Polyergus  ru- 
fescens),  the  Black,  the  Miner  (Formica  cunicularia],  the  Turf-ant, 
&c.  All  these  species  employ  a  mortar,  more  or  less  fine,  in  raising 
their  hillocks,  at  the  same  time  that  they  hollow  out  their  under- 
ground dwellings.  The  Jet  ant  (Formica  fuliginosa]  excavates 
wood ;  hollowing  out  its  labyrinth  in  the  trunk  of  a  tree  with  con- 


Fig.  363. — Ashy-black  Ant  (Formica  fusca).    Male,  female,  and  worker. 

summate  skill.    The  Red  ant  (Myrmica  ruba)  plies,  according  to 
circumstances,  the  trade  of  a  mason  or  excavator. 

The  masons  work  when  they  can  profit  by  the  rain  or  by  the 
evening  dew,  to  make  their  mortar.  They  only  go  out  after 
sunset,  or  when  a  fine  rain  has  wetted  their  roof.  Then  they 
set  to  work.  They  roll  up  pellets  of  earth,  bring  them  back  in 
their  mandibles,  and  stick  them  on  to  those  places  where  the 
building  was  left  unfinished.  From  all  sides  the  earth-workers 


Fig.  364.— Ashy  Ant.    Male,  worker,  and  female. 

may  be  seen  arriving,  laden  with  materials.  All  these  are 
bustling,  hurrying,  busy,  but  always  in  the  greatest  order,  and  with 
a  perfect  understanding  among  themselves.  Every  part  of  the 
building  is  going  on  afc  the  same  time.  The  apartments  spring 
up  one  above  another,  and  the  edifice  visibly  rises.  The  rain,  the 
sun,  and  the  wind  consolidate  and  harden  the  building  so 
cunningly  contrived  by  these  industrious  workers,  who  have 
received  from  God  alone  their  marvellous  science.  With  no  other 

c  c 


386  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

tool  than  their  mandibles,  the  excavators  work  their  way  through 
the  hardest  wood.  They  bore  holes  right  through  it,  riddling 
it  completely  with  numerous  stories  of  horizontal  galleries.  The 
Yellow  ant  has  two  sorts  of  habitations :  it  passes  the  summer 
in  a  tree,  and  the  winter  in  a  burrow  or  underground  dwelling- 
place. 

Independent  of  the  principal  entrances,  there  exist,  in  some 
nests,  masked  doors,  guarded  by  sentinels.  Many  species  also 
hollow  out  covered  galleries,  which  they  only  unmask  in  ex- 
treme danger,  either  to  open  an  outlet  for  the  besieged,  or  to 
turn  the  enemy  who  has  already  invaded  the  place.  Ant-hills  are, 
in  fact,  perfect  fortresses,  defended  by  a  thousand  ingenious  con- 
trivances, and  guarded  by  sentinels  always  on  the  qui  vive. 

The  domestic  life  of  the  different  species  is  nearly  the  same. 
The  birth  and  rearing  of  the  little  ones,  and  the  duties  of  the 
adults,  do  not  differ  perceptibly  from  each  other 
in  the  various  species  of  ants.  The  females  live 
together  in  harmony.  They  lay,  without  ceasing 
to  walk  about/white  eggs,  of  cylindrical  form,  and 
microscopic  dimensions.  The  workers  pick  them 
up,  and  carry  them  to  special  chambers.  In  a 
fortnight  after  the  laying,  the  larva  (Fig.  365) 
appears.  Its  body  is  transparent.  A  head  and 
wings  can  be  made  out,  but  no  legs ;  the  mouth 
is  a  retractile  nipple,  bordered  by  rudimentary 
mandibles,  into  which  the  workers  disgorge  the 
juices  they  have  elaborated  in  their  stomachs;  and 
as  they  lay  by  no  provisions,  they  are  obliged  to  gather  each  day 
the  sugary  liquids  destined  for  the  food  of  the  larvae. 

From  their  birth,  a  troop  of  nurses  is  charged  with  the  care  of 
them.  They  put  them  out  in  the  open  air  during  the  day. 
Hardly  has  the  sun  risen,  when  the  ants  placed  just  under  the 
roof,  go  to  tell  those  which  are  beneath,  by  touching  them  with 
their  antennae,  or  shaking  them  with  their  mandibles.  In  a  few 
seconds,  all  the  outlets  are  crowded  with  workers  carrying  out  the 
larvae  in  order  to  place  them  on  the  top  of  the  ant-hill,  that  they 
may  be  exposed  to  the  beneficent  heat  of  the  sun.  When  the 
larvae  have  remained  some  time  in  the  same  place,  their  guardians 


HYMENOPTEEA.  387 

move  them  away  from  the  direct  action  of  the  solar  rays,  and  put 
them  in  chambers  a  little  way  from  the  top  of  the  hill,  where  a 
milder  heat  can  still  reach  them.  We  then  see  the  ants  them- 
selves taking  the  well-earned  luxury  of  a  few  minutes'  rest/ 
heaping  themselves  up  together,  right  in  the  sun.  There  is  no 
observant  inhabitant  of  the  country  who  has  not  seen  the  curious 
spectacle  which  we  have  just  mentioned,  that  is  to  say,  the  popu- 
lation of  an  ants'  nest  carrying  into  the  sun  the  young  nurslings, 
so  that  they  may  experience  the  action  of  the  solar  heat.  We 
recommend  the  dweller  in  towns,  who  is  in  the  country  for  a  day, 
to  stretch  himself  out  near  an  ant-hill,  in  the  warm  weather, 
and  witness  this  spectacle,  one  of  the  most  curious  in  nature. 
The  care  which  the  working  ants  bestow  on  their  young  does 
not  consist  only  in  nourishing  them  and  procuring  for  them  a 
proper  temperature  ;  they  have  also  to  keep  them  extremely  clean. 
With  their  palpi  they  clean  them,  brush  them,  distend  their  skin, 
and  thus  prepare  them  for  the  critical  trial  of  their  metamor- 
phosis. 

At  this  moment,  the  larvae  of  ants,  properly  so  called,  spin 
themselves  a  silky  cocoon,  of  a  close  tissue,  and  of  a  grey  or 
yellowish  colour ;  those  of  the  Myrmicae  and  of  the 
Ponerce  do  not  surround  themselves  with  a  shell 
before  changing  into  pupae.  These  are  at  first  of 
a  pure  white,  but  they  very  soon  assume  a  brown 
colour,  which  increases  until  it  becomes  dark-brown. 
They  possess  all  the  organs  of  the  adult,  enveloped 
in  a  membrane  so  thin,  that  it  seems  to  be  iri- 
descent. Fig.  366  represents  the  pupa  of  the  red 
ant.  They  are  the  shells  enclosing  the  pupae,  which 
are  incorrectly  called  in  the  country  ants'  eggs, 

J  t  .  J_  ,    .-,  Ffe-    366,-Pupa    of 

and  are  given  to  young  pheasants  and  partridges,     the  Bed  Ant  (j^r- 

.,  -MI        •  mica  rufa),m&g- 

The  pupae  remain  motionless  till  the  insects  emerge,  nified- 
which  is  accomplished  with  the  assistance  of  the  workers. 
These  latter  tear  the  covering  from  the  pupa,  and  complete 
its  deliverance.  They  then  watch  over  the  newly-born  ant. 
For  some  days  they  feed  it,  help  it  to  walk,  and  do  not 
abandon  it  till  it  can  dispense  with  their  good  offices.  These 
workers,  when  provisions  fail,  or  when  the  ant-hill  is  threatened 

cc  2 


388  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

with  any  great  danger,  take  on  their  shoulders  the  eggs,  the 
larvae,  the  pupae,  and  sometimes  those  females  and  the  males 
which  refuse  to  follow  them.  Thus  laden,  they  go  their  way, 
Anchises  like,  to  seek  for  another  country  they  may  call  their 
own.  They  never  forget,  in  their  hurried  emigrations,  the 
infirm  or  sick  workers,  which  would  perish  in  the  house  now 
abandoned  and  deserted. 

The  males  and  females  lately  hatched  do  not  enjoy  the  same 
liberty  as  the  young  workers.  They  are  confined  to  the  ant-hill, 
where  they  are  kept  in  sight  till  the  day  of  the  general 
departure.  It  is  towards  the  end  of  the  month  of  August  that 
swarms  of  winged  ants  of  both  sexes  are  seen  to  issue  forth. 
The  males  come  out  first,  agitating  their  iridescent  and  trans- 
parent wings.  The  females,  less  numerous,  follow  them  closely. 
All  of  a  sudden,  one  sees  this  troop  raise  itself  at  a  given  signal, 
and  disappear  in  the  air,  where  the  coupling  takes  place.  The 
males  perish  immediately  afterwards.  The  females  impregnated 
return  to  the  paternal  home,  or  else  found  new  colonies,  with 
the  assistance  of  a  few  workers  who  are  their  escort.  From 
this  moment,  they  no  longer  require  wings.  The  workers  make 
haste  to  cut  them  off,  or,  indeed,  which  oftenest  happens,  they 
themselves  tear  them  off.  With  their  wings  they  lose  the  desire 
for  liberty.  Henceforward,  they  will  quit  their  retreat  no  more  ; 
the  cares  of  their  approaching  maternity  now  alone  occupying  them. 
The  working  ants  reserve  for  them  subterranean  chambers,  where 
they  are  kept  in  sight  by  the  sentinels.  At  certain  hours  only 
are  they  to  be  met  with  in  the  upper  stories.  When  they  wish 
to  walk,  a  company  of  guards  presses  round  them  on  all  sides, 
so  as  to  prevent  them  from  advancing  too  quickly.  There  are  no 
sorts  of  attentions  they  do  not  heap  upon  them  to  make  them 
forget  their  captivity.  They  caress  them,  brush  them,  lick  them, 
they  offer  them  food  continually.  On  the  least  appearance  of 
danger,  the  workers  take  possession,  first  of  all,  of  the  pregnant 
females,  and  drag  them  out  by  the  secret  outlets,  so  as  to  put 
in  a  place  of  safety  their  precious  persons,  the  hope  of  the  com- 
munity. The  workers'  task  is  immense,  for  their  labours  increase 
in  the  same  proportion  as  the  population  increases.  But  the 
division  of  work  and  the  good  understanding  which  exists  between 


HYMENOPTEKA.  389 

the  members  of  the  community,  allow  them  to  be  prepared  for 
anything  that  may  happen,  and  to  supply  all  their  necessities. 

Nothing  is  more  amusing  than  to  observe  the  shifts  ants  are 
put  to  in  transporting  objects  of  great  size.  They  stumble,, 
they  tumble  head  over  heels,  they  roll  down  precipices  ;  but,  in 
spite  of  all  accidents,  return  to  their  task,  and  always  accom- 
plish it. 

The  tranquil  inhabitants  of  these  subterranean  republics  are 
bound  together  by  a  mutual  affection  in  a  devoted  fraternity, 
which  makes  them  ever  ready  to  assist  each  other.  They  all  help 
one  another  as  much  as  they  can.  If  an  ant  is  tired,  a  comrade 
carries  it  on  its  back.  Those  which  are  so  absorbed  with  their 
work  that  they  have  no  time  to  think  of  their  food,  are  fed  by 
their  companions.  When  an  ant  is  wounded,  the  first  one  who 
meets  it  renders  it  assistance,  and  carries  it  home.  Latreille 
having  torn  the  antennae  from  an  ant,  saw  another  approach  the 
poor  wounded  one,  and  pour,  with  its  tongue,  a  few  drops  of  a 
yellow  liquid  on  the  bleeding  wound. 

Huber  the  younger  one  day  took  an  ants'  nest  to  populate  one 
of  those  glass  contrivances  which  he  used  for  making  his  obser- 
vations, and  which  consisted  of  a  sort  of  glass  bell  placed  over  the 
nest.  Our  naturalist  set  at  liberty  one  part  of  the  ants,  which  fixed 
themselves  at  the  foot  of  a  neighbouring  chestnut-tree.  The 
rest  were  kept  during  four  months  in  the  apparatus,  and  at 
the  end  of  this  time,  Huber  moved  the  whole  into  the  garden, 
and  a  few  ants  managed  to  escape.  Having  met  their  old  com- 
panions, who  still  lived  at  the  foot  of  the  chestnut-tree,  they 
recognised  them.  They  were  seen,  in  fact,  all  of  them  to  gesti- 
culate, to  caress  each  other  mutually  with  their  antennae,  to  take 
each  other  by  the  mandibles,  as  if  to  embrace  in  token  of  joy, 
and  they  then  re-entered  together  the  nest  at  the  foot  of  the  chest- 
nut-tree. Very  soon  they  came  in  a  crowd  to  look  for  the  other 
ants  under  the  bell,  and  in  a  few  hours  our  observer's  appa- 
ratus was  completely  evacuated  by  its  prisoners.  "When  an  ant 
has  discovered  any  rich  prey,  far  from  enjoying  it  alone,  like  a 
gourmand,  it  invites  all  its  companions  to  the  feast.  Community 
of  goods  and  interests  exists  amongst  all  the  members  of  this, 
model  society.  It  is  the  practical  realisation  of  the  dream  formed 


390  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

by  certain  philosophers  of  our  day,  who  were  only  able  to  conceive 
the  idea,  the  possibility,  the  project  of  such  a  community  of  goods 
and  interests,  which  is  among  ants  a  reality. 

How  do  these  insects  manage  to  make  themselves  understood 
in  such  various  ways,  asking  for  help,  giving  advice,  giving  invi- 
tations ?  They  must  have  a  language  of  their  own,  or  else  they 
must  communicate  their  impressions  by  the  play  of  their  antennae. 

When  an  ant  is  hungry,  and  does  not  wish  to  disturb  itself 
from  its  work,  it  tells  a  foraging  ant  as  it  passes,  by  touching  it 
with  its  antennae ;  the  latter  approaches  it  immediately,  and 
presents  it,  on  the  end  of  its  tongue,  some  juice  it  has  disgorged 
for  this  purpose.  The  antennae,  then,  are  used  by  the  ants  for 
the  purpose  of  making  themselves  understood  by  each  other.  Dr. 
Ebrard,  who  studied  these  insects  attentively,  is  of  opinion  that 
they  use  them  in  the  same  way  as  a  blind  man  does  his  stick, 
to  feel  their  way  with,  for  their  sight  is  not  good.  The  age 
to  which  ants  live  is  not  well  known.  It  is  believed  that  the 
workers  live  many  years. 

Ants  eat  all  sorts  of  things.  One  sees  them  eating  meat,  fresh 
or  decaying,  fruits,  flowers,  particularly  everything  which  is 
sugary.  They  attack  living  insects,  and  kill  them  and  suck  their 
blood.  Like  many  insects,  they  are  very  fond  of  sugary  liquids, 
honey,  syrups,  pure  sugar,  &c.  Dupont  de  Nemours  relates 
in  his  Memoirs  that,  to  guarantee  his  sugar-basin  against  the 
invasion  of  ants,  he  had  found  no 'better  plan  than  to  place  it  "  in 
an  island,"  that  is  to  say,  in  the  middle  of  a  basin  full  of  water. 
He  felt  sure  that  he  had  thus  made  the  fortress  safe  against  any 
attack  ;  but  listen  to  the  stratagem  made  use  of  by  the  besiegers. 
The  ants  climbed  up  the  wall  to  the  ceiling,  exactly  perpen- 
dicularly over  the  sugar-basin.  From  there  they  let  themselves 
fall  into  the  interior  of  the  place,  penetrating  thus  by  main  force, 
and  without  injuring  any  one,  into  the  magazine.  As  the  ceiling 
was  very  high,  the  draught  caused  them  to  deviate  from  the 
straight  line,  and  thus  a  certain  number  fell  into  the  fosse  of  the 
citadel,  that  is  to  say,  into  the  water  in  the  basin.  Their  com- 
panions, stationed  on  the  bank,  made  all  efforts  imaginable  to 
fish  out  the  drowning  ants,  but  were  afraid  of  taking  to  the  water 
of  such  a  large  lake.  All  that  they  could  do  was,  to  stretch 


HYMENOPTERA.  391 

out  their  bodies  as  far  as  possible  (keeping  on  tbe  bank  the 
while),  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  their  drowning  friends. 
Nevertheless,  the  salvage  did  not  progress  much,  when  the  ants, 
which  were  getting  very  uneasy,  conceived  a  happy  thought.  A 
few  were  seen  to  run  to  the  ant-hill  and  then  to  reappear. 
They  brought  with  them  a  squad  of  eight  grenadiers,  who  threw 
themselves  into  the  water  without  any  hesitation,  and  who, 
swimming  vigorously,  seized  with  their  pincers  all  the  drowning 
ants,  and  brought  them  all  on  to  terra  firma.  Eleven,  half-dead, 
were  thus  brought  to  shore,  that  is,  to  the  rim  of  the  basin. 
They  would  probably  all  of  them  have  succumbed,  if  their  com- 
panions had  not  hastened  to  lend  them  assistance.  They  rolled 
them  in  the  dust,  they  brushed  them,  they  rubbed  them,  they 
stretched  themselves  on  their  dying  companions  to  warm  them ; 
then  they  rolled  them  and  rubbed  them  again.  Four  were 
restored  to  life.  A  fifth,  half-recovered,  and  still  moving  its  legs 
and  its  antennao  a  little,  was  taken  home  with  all  sorts  of  pre- 
cautions. The  six  others  were  dead.  They  were  carried  into 
the  ant-hill  by  their  afflicted  companions.  One  thinks  one  must 
be  dreaming  when  one  reads  such  things  as  this,  and  yet  Dupont  t 
de  Nemours  tells  us  :  "I  have  seen  it !  " 

Ants  are  also  very  fond  of  a  peculiar  liquid  which  the  plant- lice 
secrete  from  a  pouch  in  the  abdomen.  When  they  have  got  pos- 
session of  a  plant-louse,  they  excite  it  to  secrete  this  liquid,  but 
without  doing  it  any  harm.  They  carry  the  plant-lice  into  the 
ant-hill,  or  into  private  stables.  There  they  keep  them,  give 
them  their  food,  and  suck  them.  We  have  already  mentioned  these 
curious  relations  which  are  established  between  ants  and  plant- 
lice.  Fig.  367  shows  an  ant  thus  occupied.  The  Gallinsecta*  also 
furnish  the  ants  with  sugary  liquids. 

During  the  cold  of  winter,  the  ants  sleep  at  the  bottom  of 
their  nests,  without  taking  any  food.  A  small  number  of  species 
only  hold  out  through  the  severe  season,  by  shutting  themselves 
up  in  the  ant-hill  with  a  number  of  plant- lice.  It  is  thus  that 
they  pass  the  winter,  with  a  supply  of  food.  We  must  mention, 
however,  that  in  warm  countries  the  ants  do  not  hybernate. 

We  have  just  described  ant  society  during  the  quiet  periods 
*  See  the  Order  Hemiptera,  supra. — ED. 


392 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


when  peace  reigns  supreme ;  but  they  are  not  more  exempt  than 
other  animals  from  the  necessities  and  dangers  of  war.  They  have 
a  great  many  enemies  among  the  population  of  the  woods ;  they 


Fig.  367.— Ant  milking  Aphides,  or  Plant-lice  (magnified). 

must,  then,  be  prepared  to  repel  their  attacks.  They  display  in  that 

the  most  scientific  resources  of  the  military  art  applied  to  defence. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  sentinels  are,  at  all  times,  posted 


HYMENOPTEEA.  393 

at  a  reasonable  distance  from  the  ant-hill,  to  observe  the  environs. 
When  the  fortress  is  unexpectedly  attacked,  whether  by  large 
insects,  Coleoptera,  for  instance,  or  by  the  ants  from  a  neighbour- 
ing nest,  these  vigilant  sentinels  immediately  fall  back  and  give 
the  alarm  to  the  camp,  not,  however,  without  having  boldly  con- 
fronted the  enemy  and  opposed  to  him  an  honourable  resistance. 
Having  re-entered  the  nest  in  all  haste,  they  precipitate  them- 
selves into  the  passages,  tapping  with  their  antennae  all  the  ants 
which  they  meet,  and  thus  spreading  the  alarm  in  the  city. 
Yery  soon  the  agitation  has  become  general,  and  thousands  of 
combatants  sally  forth  from  the  citadel,  ready  to  repel  the  attack 
and  make  the  enemy  bite  the  dust. 

The  possession  of  a  flock  of  plant-lice  is  sometimes  a  subject 
of  discord,  and  becomes  a  casus  belli  between  two  neighbouring 
ant-hills.  But,  usually,  the  war  has  for  its  object  to  make  pri- 
soners in  other  nests,  and  to  carry  off  part  of  the  inhabitants  as 
slaves.  This  is  the  origin  of  mixed  ant-hills,  which,  independently 
of  their  natural  founders,  contain  one  or  two  foreign  species,  helots 
whom  the  conquerors  have  taken  away  from  their  birth-place,  to 
make  of  them  auxiliaries  and  slaves.  In  these  mixed  ant-hills, 
the  species  imported  exceed  in  number  the  original  population, 
as  it  happens  sometimes  in  those  ships  which  are  used  in  the 
slave  trade,  and  on  which  the  slaves  are  often  found  in  greater 
numbers  than  the  sailors  composing  the  crew.  The  phalanx  of 
ants  reduced  to  a  state  of  slavery  pay  all  sorts  of  attentions  to 
their  masters.  They  lick  them,  brush  them,  caress  them,  carry 
them  on  their  backs,  feed  them — good  and  faithful  servants  that 
they  are — and  even  rear  their  progeny.  The  masters  impose  on 
their  slaves  all  sorts  of  work.  They  only  reserve  for  themselves 
the  making  of  war.  From  time  to  time,  they  undertake  expedi- 
tions against  some  neighbouring  ants'  nest.  If  they  are  conquered 
and  come  back  without  bringing  with  them  any  prisoners,  the 
slaves  or  auxiliaries  are  sulky  to  them,  and  will  not  allow  them 
for  some  time  to  enter  the  nest.  If  they  return,  on  the -con- 
trary, loaded  with  booty,  they  flatter  them,  they  give  them  food, 
they  relieve  them  of  their  prisoners,  which  they  lead  away  into 
the  interior  of  the  fortress.  The  warlike  tribes,  however,  never 
carry  off  any  other  but  the  larvae  and  nymphs  of  workers  from 


394  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

the  ant-hills  they  plunder.  These  young  captives  get  used  to 
their  kidnappers :  brought  up  in  fear  of  their  masters,  they  never 
think  of  abandoning  them. 

Two  species  constitute  the  warrior  tribes  which  form  societies 
mixed  with  the  species  they  reduce  to  slavery.  They  are  the 
Russet  ant  (Fig.  368)  and  the  Blood-red  ant  (Fig.  369).  They 


Fig  368.—  Kusset  Ants  (Polyerus  rufescens) . 


always  attack  the  nests  of  the  Ashy-black  (Formica  fusca)  and 
the  Miners.  The  Russet  ant  has  mandibles  made  for  war ;  they 
appear  cut  out  for  struggling  and  fighting.  The  Blood-red  ants 
are  less  ferocious.  They  work  themselves,  and  make  none  of  those 


Fig.  369. — Blood-red  Ant  (Formica  sanguinec/). 

sweeping  raids  by  which  the  Russet  ants  depopulate  the  neigh- 
bouring ant-hills. 

What  Peter  Huber  has  done  for  bees,  Francis  Huber,  his  son, 
has  for  the  ants.  It  is  from  Francis  Huber  that  we  borrow  the 
description  which  it  remains  for  us  to  give,  of  the  habits  of  ants 
in  times  of  war.  He  thus  relates  one  of  these  expeditions,  of  which 
he  was  a  witness : — " On  the  17th  of  June,  1804,"  says  he,  "as  I 
was  walking  in  the  environs  of  Geneva,  between  four  and  five  in 
the  afternoon,  I  saw  at  my  feet  a  legion  of  largish  russet  ants 
crossing  the  road.  They  were  marching  in  a  body  with  rapidity, 
their  troop  occupied  a  space  of  from  eight  to  ten  feet  long  by  three 
or  four  inches  wide ;  in  a  few  minutes  they  had  entirely  evacuated 
the  road ;  they  penetrated  through  a  very  thick  hedge  and  went 
into  a  meadow,  whither  I  followed  them.  They  wound  their  way 
along  the  turf  without  straying,  and  their  column  remained  always 
continuous,  in  spite  of  the  obstacles  which  they  had  to  surmount. 


HYMENOPTEEA.  395 

Very  soon  they  arrived  near  a  nest  of  ashy-black  ants,  whose 
dome  rose  among  the  grass,  at  twenty  paces  from  the  hedge.  A 
few  ants  of  this  species  were  at  the  door  of  their  habitation.  As 
soon  as  they  descried  the  army  which  was  approaching,  they  threw 
themselves  on  those  which  were  at  the  head  of  the  cohort.  The 
alarm  spread  at  the  same  instant  in  the  interior  of  the  nest,  and 
their  companions  rushed  out  in  crowds  from  all  the  subterranean 
passages.  The  russet  ants,  the  body  of  whose  army  was  only  two 
paces  distant,  hastened  to  arrive  at  the  foot  of  the  nest ;  the  whole 
troop  precipitated  itself  forward  at  the  same  time,  and  knocked 
the  ashy-black  ants  head  over  heels,  who,  after  a  very  short,  but 
very  smart  combat,  retired  to  the  extremity  of  the  habitation. 
The  russet  ants  clambered  up  the  sides  of  the  hillock,  flocked  to 
the  summit,  and  introduced  themselves  in  great  numbers  into  the 
first  avenues ;  other  groups  worked  with  their  teeth,  making  a 
lateral  aperture.  In  this  they  succeeded,  and  the  rest  of  the  army 
penetrated  through  the  breach  into  the  besieged  city.  They  did 
not  make  a  long  stay  there;  in  three  or  four  minutes  the  russet 
ants  came  out  again  in  haste,  by  the  same  adits,  carrying  each  one 
in  its  mouth  a  pupa  or  larva  belonging  to  the  conquered.  They 
again  took  exactly  the  same  road  by  which  they  had  come,  and 
followed  each  other  in  a  straggling  manner;  their  line  was 
easily  to  be  distinguished  on  the  grass  by  the  appearance  which 
this  multitude  of  white  shells  and  pupae,  carried  by  as  many  russet- 
coloured  ants,  presented.  They  passed  through  the  hedge  a 
second  time,  crossed  the  road,  and  then  steered  their  course  into  a 
field  of  ripe  wheat,  whither,  I  regret  to  say,  I  was  unable  to  follow 
them."* 

Huber  adds  that  having  returned  to  the  pillaged  nest  to 
examine  it  more  closely,  he  saw  some  ashy-black  workers  bring- 
ing back  to  their  home  the  few  larvae  which  they  had  succeeded 
in  saving.  Having  later  discovered  the  nest  of  these  Amazons, 
which  is  the  name  he  gives  to  the  warrior  ants,  he  found  there 
many  of  the  ashy-black  ants  living  on  very  good  terms  with  their 
kidnappers. 

The  Amazons  begin  their  expeditions  at  the  end  of  June, 
during  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day.  They  come  out  in  long 
*  "  Recherches  sur  les  Moeurs  des  Fourmis  indigenes."  Paris,  1810,  p.  210. 


398  THE  INSECT  WOELT). 

files,  eight  or  ten  abreast,  preceded  by  their  scouts.  These 
columns  start  at  a  run,  in  a  straight  line,  and  without  feeling 
their  way.  They  have  no  chieftain.  The  van  is  re-formed  every 
moment.  Those  who  are  in  front  do  not  remain  there  ;  at  the  end 
of  a  certain  time  they  go  and  range  themselves  in  the  rear,  and 
are  replaced  by  those  which  were  behind.  The  whole  troop  is 
thus  in  constant  communication  throughout  its  entire  length. 
Harely  does  the  expedition  divide  into  two  bodies.  Arrived 
under  the  walls  of  the  fortress,  the  column  halts  and  masses  itself 
into  one  corps.  The  assault  is  made  with  incredible  impetuosity. 
In  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  the  place  is  escaladed,  taken  by 
storm,  and  pillaged,  and  the  ashy-black  ants  either  put  to  flight 
or  led  away  into  captivity.  The  same  ant-hill  may  be  invaded 
as  many  as  three  times  running  on  the  same  day ;  but  then  the 
ashy-black  ants,  on  their  guard,  have  barricaded  themselves  in, 
and  in  that  case  the  aggressors  return  home  without  pillaging 
them. 

The  Mining  ants  (Fig.  370)  are  less  timid  than  the  ashy-black, 
and  as  they  defend  themselves  with  more  energy,   there  are  fre- 


Fig.  370.— Mining  Ant  (Formica  cuniculariu),  male,  worker,  and  female. 

quently  deadly  combats,  and  the  field  of  battle  is  left  covered  with 
heads,  legs,  and  limbs  scattered  about  here  and  there,  with  the 
dead  and  wounded.  The  miners  pursue  the  pillagers,  and  snatch 
their  plunder  from  them.  But  they  are  sometimes  driven  back 
vigorously,  and  the  russet  ants  gain  their  lair  with  their  plunder. 
The  tactics  of  the  Red  ants  (Formica  sanguined)  differ  from  those 
of  the  russet.  They  only  sally  forth  in  small  detachments,  which 
begin  by  engaging  in  skirmishes  with  the  scouts  thrown  out 
round  the  enemy's  ant-hill.  Couriers,  despatched  from  time  to 
time  to  the  camp  of  the  red  ants,  bring  up  reinforcements. 
When  the  troop  feels  itself  sufficiently  strong,  it  invades  the 
nest  of  the  ashy-black  ants,  and  carries  off  their  offspring,  which 
the  latter  have  not  had  time  to  secure.  Sometimes,  also,  the  red 


HYMENOPTEEA.  397 

ants  instal  themselves  in  the  nest  whose  inhabitants  they  have 
ejected,  and  transfer  their  own  population  to  it.  The  motive  for 
this  emigration  is  that  the  old  nest  has  become  useless,  or  that 
it  is  exposed  to  some  danger.  The  red  ants  are  not  the  only 
ants  which  thus  desert  their  birthplace.  Many  species  abandon 
it  likewise  for  analogous  motives,  and  construct  elsewhere  another 
dwelling,  to  which  they  transport  all  the  population  of  the  first 
nest. 

When  one  reflects  on  the  habits  of  ants,  one  is  forced  to  admit 
that  intelligence  and  reason  appear  still  more  in  their  acts  than 
in  those  of  bees.  The  life  of  ants,  as  well  as  that  of  bees,  as  far  as 
we  are  concerned,  is  an  unintelligible  enigma.  The  acts  of 
animals,  in  general,  are  sometimes  an  abyss  unfathomable  to  our 
reason.  The  Orientals  say,  "  The  last  word  may  be  written  on 
man :  on  the  elephant,  never  !  "  Let  us  add  that  they  should  no 
more  say  that  the  elephant  will  be  an  inexhaustible  theme,  but 
that  the  history  of  the  ant  will  continue  so  always. 

The  best-known  genus  of  the  Fossores  or  Fossorial  Hymenop- 
tera  is  Philanthus  (Fig.  371),  which  feeds  its  larvae  on  bees, 
having  first  numbed  them  by  its  sting ;  Pompilus  and  Sphex, 


Fig.  371.— PliilanUiua  triangulum.  Fig.  £72.— MutfflaEuropaa.    Male  and  female. 

which  attack  spiders ;  Mutilla  (Fig.  372),  whose  females  resemble 
ants,  agreeably  variegated  with  red  and  yellow  ;  the  males,  pro- 
vided with  wings  and  smaller  in  size,  being  black.  The  Mutillce  are 
parasitical  on  solitary  bees,  their  larvae  devouring  the  larvae  of 
these. 

Other  Hymenoptera  lay  their  eggs  under  the  skin  of  certain 
insects,  especially  when  these  are  in  the  larva  or  caterpillar  state, 
thus  rendering  service  to  agriculture  by  destroying  a  great  num- 
ber of  noxious  insects.  In  lieu  of  a  sting  they  have  an  auger, 
intended  to  pierce  the  skin  of  their  victims.  It  is  thus  that  the 
Ichneumons  introduce  their  eggs  under  the  skin  of  caterpillars. 


398 


THE  INSECT  WOELI). 


Pimplas  (Fig.  373),  which  belong  to  this  group,  have  a  very 
long  ovipositor,  which,  with  its  two  appendages,  constitute  three 
lancets,  and  enable  them  to  get  at  the  larvso  in  their  retreats. 


Fig.  373.— A  specie's  of  Pimpla. 


Fig.  374.— A  species  of  Ophion. 


The  Ophions  (Fig.  374)  have  a  sickle-shaped:  abdomen.  They  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  skin  of  caterpillars,  which  they  attack  with  the 
short,  cutting  auger  with  which  they  are  provided. 

The  Cynips,  or  Gall-insects,  are  small  black  or  tawny 
Hymenoptera,  the  females  of  which  have  an  auger,  with  which 
they  prick  the  young  shoots  of  plants,  rolled  up  spirally  and 
hidden  in  a  fissure  of  the  abdomen.  A  peculiar  liquid  which  they 
pour  into  the  hole  round  the  egg  they  have  laid,  causes  an 
excrescence  to  grow,  which  is  called  a  "  gall."  The  larva  is 
developed  in  the  centre  of  this  gall,  and  transformed  into  a  pupa, 
and  afterwards  into  a  perfect  insect,  which  makes  its  exit  by  a 
hole  in  the  wall  of  its  prison.  Fig.  375  represents  the  Cynips  of 


HYMENOPTERA.  399 

the  oak-tree  (Cynips  quercusfolii),  and  Figs.  376  and  377,  the  galls 
it  produces.  The  galls  of  the  rose  are  hairy,  and  are  sometimes 
called  "  Robin's  Cushion."  The  gall-nut,  rich  in  tannin,  which  is 


Fig.  375.-Gall  insect  Fig.  376.— Oak  Galls,  produced  by  Fig.  377.— Interior 

(Cynips  quercusfolii).  Cynips  quercusfolii.  of  a  Gall. 

used  in  the  manufacture  of  ink,  is  the  produce  of  a  foreign  Cynips, 
which  lives  on  an  oak  found  in  the  East.  Apples  of  Sodom,  which 
travellers  bring  back  from  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  are  large 
galls,*  full  of  dust  and  dry  larvae. 

The  Urocerata  and  the  Tentkredinetae  form  two  tribes  of  insects, 
of  which  the  first  are  of  great  size,  have  a  cylindrical  body, 
the  abdomen  being  attached  to  the  thorax  in  its  whole  breadth, 
without  any  pedicle. 

The  insects  of  the  genus  Sirex  (Fig.  378),  belonging  to  the  former 
of  these,  lay  their  eggs  in  living  wood,  and  their  larvae  live  for  many 
years  in  the  interior.  They  are  to  be  met  with  in  great  numbers  in 
forests  of  pine-trees,  and  according  to  Latreille,  show  themselves 
sometimes  in  such  great  numbers  as  to  become  an  object  of  terror. 
The  female  of  the  Giant  Sirex  (Sirex  gigas]  possesses  a  long  recti- 
linear auger.  The  mandibles  of  the  larvae  are  of  great  strength, 
and  are  even  capable  of  perforating  lead.  This  fact  has  been  observed 
many  times.  In  1857  Marshal  Vaillant  presented  to  the  Academie 
des  Sciences  some  packets  of  cartridges  containing  balls  which  had 

*  Made  by  Cynips  insana. — ED. 


400  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

been  pierced  through  by  the  larvae  of  the  Sirex  during  the 
sojourn  of  the  French  troops  in  the  Crimea.  Some  of  these 
insects  were  still  shut  up  in  the  gallery  which  they  had  hollowed 


Fig.  378. — Sirex  gigas. 

out  in  the  metal.  M.  Dumeril  (and  this  was  one  of  the  last  works 
of  that  venerable  and  learned  naturalist)  wrote  a  Report  on  this 
subject,  in  which  were  recorded  many  analogous  instances.  He 
quoted  as  an  example,  that  M.  le  Marquis  de  Breme,  in  1844, 
showed  to  the  Soeiete  Zoologique  many  cartridges  in  which  the 
balls  had  been  perforated  by  the  insects  to  a  depth  of  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch.  These  cartridges  came  from  the  arsenal  of 
Turin.  They  had  been  placed  in  barrels  made  of  larch  wood,  the 
inside  of  which  had  been  attacked  by  the  insects.  It  was  dis- 
covered that  it  was  after  having  left  the  wood  that  they  had 
gnawed  through  the  envelopes  of  the  cartridges  and  at  last  the 
balls  themselves.  In  1833  Audouin  presented  to  the  Societe 
"Entomologique  de  France  a  plate  of  lead,  from  the  roof  of  a  build- 
ing, on  which  this  naturalist  supposed  that  the  larvae  of  a  Callidium* 
had  made  deep  sinuosities,  as  they  do  in  wood.  Before  this,  parts 
of  the  leaden  roofs  at  La  Rochelle  had  been  noticed  not  only  gnawed, 
but  pierced  from  one  side  to  the  other,  by  the  larvae  of  Bostrichus 
capudnas.^  In  1844  M.  Dumarest  reported  the  erosion  and* 
perforation  of  sheets  of  lead  by  a  species  of  Bostrichus  and  by  the 
Callidium.  In  1843  M.  Du  Boys  presented  to  the  Societe  d'Agri- 

*  A  Coleopterous  insect. — ED.  f  Also  a  beetle. — ED. 


HYMENOPTEEA.  401 

culture  of  Limoges  some  stereotyped  plates,  composed,  as  is  well 
known,  of  a  very  hard  alloy,  formed  of  antimony  and  lead,  which 
had  been  pierced  and  riddled  with  holes  by  two  specimens  of  a 
Bostrichm.  The  holes  were  a  seventh  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  by 
two  inches  in  depth.  The  stereotypes  were  thus  perforated,  although 
they  had  been  wrapped  up  in  many  folds  of  paper  and  cardboard. 
As  the  printing  served  for  the  work  called  "  Les  Fastes  Militaires 
de  la  France/'  one  may  say  that  the  brave  soldiers  received 
from  an  insect  more  wounds  than  their  enemies  had  ever  given 
them. 

To  prove  that  these  insects  have  really  the  power  to  perforate 
metals  as  others  perforate  and  pass  through  woody  matter,  the 
entomologist  of  Limoges  made  the  following  experiment.  He 
placed  in  a  leaden  box,  whose  sides  were  thin,  a  living  specimen 
of  the  Fire-coloured  Lepture  of  Geoffrey  (Callidium  sanguineum), 
a  Coleopteron  which  is  commonly  found  in  houses  in  France  in 
winter,  its  larvae  being  developed  in  great  numbers  in  firewood. 
Above  this  box  he  fitted  on  another,  also  containing  a  specimen  of 
this  insect,  which  he  shut  in  with  a  third  box.  A  few  days  after- 
wards he  separated  the  boxes.  The  middle  one  had  been  pierced 
through,  and  the  two  insects  were  found  together,  the  one  which  was 
below  having  made  a  hole  through  which  it  might  introduce  itself 
into  the  middle  box.  M.  Du  Boys  made  a  chemical  experiment 
which  enabled  him  to  establish  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  insect 
which  had  gnawed  the  metal  had  not  made  it  serve  as  its  food. 
The  dried  body  of  one  of  these  insects  was  analysed.  After  having 
dissolved  it  in  azotic  acid  it  was  completely  burnt,  and  there  could 
not  be  found  in  the  ashes  taken  up  by  the  azotic  acid  the  least 
trace  of  lead.  This  experiment  proves  that  these  insects  had  for 
their  object  only  to  escape  from  the  galleries  in  which  they  were 
accidentally  deposited  in  their  larva  state,  and  that  it  was  not 
until  they  had  undergone  their  complete  transformation  that  they 
endeavoured  to  gain  their  liberty.  Observations  of  the  same  kind 
were  multiplied  after  the  Report  of  M.  Dumeril.  The  Academic 
des  Sciences  received,  in  the  month  of  June,  1861,  two  Memoirs 
— one  from  M.  Heriot,  captain  of  artillery;  the  other  from 
M.  Bouteille,  curator  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  of  Gre- 
noble— containing  many  new  observations  on  the  perforation  by 

D  D 


402  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

insects  of  leaden  balls  contained  in  cartridges  prepared  for  war. 
M.  Milne  Edwards  read  to  the  Academic  des  Sciences  a  short 
Report  on  these  works. 

The  insect  which  had  produced  the  perforations  observed  in 
the  balls  sent  to  the  Crimea  in  1857,  and  which  M.  Dumeril  par- 
ticularly studied,  was  the  Sirex  juvencus,  and  had  been  taken  from 
France  in  the  wood  forming  the  boxes  which  contained  the 
cartridges.  In  the  other  case  of  which  we  are  speaking,  that  is  to 
say,  of  the  cartridges  which  were  sent  in  1861  to  the  Academic 
by  Captain  Heriot  and  by  M.  Bouteille,  the  perforations  had  been 
produced  by  another  species.  Mr.  Milne  Edwards,  who  found  the 
insect  that  had  caused  this  strange  damage,  had  no  trouble  in 
recognising  it  as  the  Sirex  gigas,  which,  in  its  larva  state,  lives 
in  the  interior  of  old  trees  or  pieces  of  wood,  and  which  after  it 
has  gone  through  all  its  metamorphoses,  comes  out  of  its  retreat, 
to  reproduce  its  kind.  To  clear  themselves  a  way,  they  cut 
away  with  their  mandibles  the  ligneous  substances  or  other  hard 
bodies  they  meet  with  on  their  road.  It  was  in  pursuing  this 
object  that  the  insects,  imprisoned  accidentally  in  the  packets  of 
cartridges  when  they  were  yet  only  in  the  larva  state,  must  have 
attacked  the  leaden  balls,  as  also  the  paper  and  the  other  matters 
which  they  met  with  on  their  road,  and  which  opposed  their 

passage.  M.  Bouteille  proves,  in  his  Me- 
moir, that  M.  Dumeril  had  committed  an 
error  in  saying  that  the  perforating  organ 
employed  by  the  Sirex  to  attack  the  leaden 
balls  in  the  cartridges  in  the  Crimea  was 
the  auger  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the 
abdomen  of  the  female,  and  intended  for 
cutting  into  that  part  of  the  wood  where 
it  is  to  lay  its  eggs.  M.  Bouteille  has 
established,  in  fact,  that  they  were  not 
only  the  females  which  attacked  the  car- 
Fig.  379.-Larva  of  a  Saw-fly  tridges,  but  that  the  males,  which  have  no 

auger,  had  occasioned  the  same  damage. 

The  Tenthredinetce  are  called  "saw-flies,"  because  the  females 
are  furnished  with  a  double  auger,  notched  like  a  saw,  with 
which  they  cut  into  the  vegetables  in  which  they  lay  their  eggs. 


HYMENOPTEKA.  403 

The  larvae  of  these  insects  have  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
caterpillars  of  Lepidoptera.  They  can  only  be  distinguished  from 
them  by  a  great  globular  head,  not 
hollowed  out,  and  by  their  abdomi- 
nal legs,  in  general  to  the  number 
of  more  than  ten.  They  are  called 
false  caterpillars  (Fig.  379).  Most  of 
them,  when  touched,  erect  themselves 
and  move  about  in  a  threatening 
manner.  They  spin  a  silken  cocoon  FI?.  sso.-Lopiiyms  Pini. 

before  changing  into  pupae.       The  Lophyrm  pini,  which  devours 
the  leaves  of  pine-trees,  belongs  to  this-  family. 


D  D  2 


VII. 
KEUKOPTEBA. 

THE  Neuroptera — the  type  of  which  Order  are  the  Libellulas,  or 
Dragon  flies  —  have  four  membranous  wings,  generally  rather 
broad,  provided  with  transverse  delicately  reticulated  nervures, 
which  give  them  the  appearance  of  lace.  Although  one  of  the 
least  extensive,  this  Order  presents  the  greatest  modifications  of 
form  and  of  habits. 

One  section  of  Neuroptera  contains  some  insects  which  undergo 
incomplete  metamorphoses.  The  Libellulce,  the  Ephemera,  and  the 
Termites  belong  to  this  category.  The  insects  belonging  to  the 
other  section,  in  which  are  classed  the  Phryganida*  or  Caddis 
flies,  the  PanorpatcB,  and  the  Myrmelionides,  or  Ant  Lions,  undergo 
complete  metamorphoses.  The  pupse  of  the  first  walk  and  live 
absolutely  in  the  same  way  as  the  larvae  ;  only,  at  the  moment  of 
the  last  transformation,  the  skin  of  the  pupa  splits,  and  the  perfect 
insect  comes  forth.  In  the  case  of  the  second,  on  the  contrary, 
the  pupa  is  motionless,  inactive,  and  takes  no  food,  as  in  the 
Hymenoptera,  Coleoptera,  &c.  In  spite  of  this  diversity  in 
their  mode  of  development,  all  these  insects  resemble  each  other 
too  much  for  us  to  divide  the  Order ;  from  which  it  follows  that 
we  must  not  attach  too  much  importance  to  differences  of  trans- 
formation by  which  the  insect  arrives  at  its  perfect  state. 

The  most  interesting  insects  among  the  Neuroptera  are  the 
Termites,  improperly  called  White  ants,  on  account  of  the  great 
analogy  which  exists  between  their  habits  and  those  of  ants. 
They  constitute,  by  their  way  of  living,  a  striking  anomaly  in 

*  These  were  separated  from  the  Neuroptera  and  made  a  separate  Order,  under 
the  name  of  Trichoptera,  by  Kirby. — ED. 


NEUEOPTEEA.  405 

the  Order  in  which  their  conformation  places  them.  In  fact,  they 
live  in  very  numerous  societies,  and  build  very  solid  and  very 
extensive  dwelling-places — quite  Cyclopean  or  Titanic  works  in 
comparison  to  the  tiny  dimensions  and  weak  and  feeble  appearance 
of  the  insect. 

Many  travellers  have  spoken  of  these  insects.  They  are  met 
with  in  the  Savannahs  of  North  America,  in  Guyana,  in  Africa,  in 
New  Holland,  and  even  in  Europe,  whither  they  have  been  im- 
ported. M.  de  Prefontaine  relates  that,  when  he  was  travelling  in 
Guyana,  he  saw  the  negroes  besieging  certain  strange  buildings, 
which  he  calls  ant-hills.  They  dared  not  attack  them  except  from 
a  distance  and  with  firearms,  although  they  had  taken  the  precau- 
tion of  digging  all  round  them  a  little  fosse  filled  w-ith  water,  in 
which  the  besieged  would  be  drowned  if  they  made  a  sortie.  These 
were  the  Termites'  nests. 

Perhaps  it  is  to  Termites  Herodotus  alludes  when  he  speaks  of 
ants  which  inhabit  Bactria,  and  which,  larger  than  a  fox,  eat  a 
pound  of  meat  a  day.*  Retired  in  the  sandy  deserts,  these  gigantic 
insects  hollow  out  (says  he)  subterranean  dwellings,  and  raise 
mounds  of  golden  sand,  which  the  Indians  carry  away  at  the  peril 
of  their  lives.  Pliny,  who  relates  the  same  fables,  adds  that  there 
were  to  be  seen  in  the  Temple  of  Hercules  the  horns  of  these  ants. 
Even  in  our  own  days  some  travellers  have  repeated  absurd 
fables  about  Termites.  They  have  attributed  to  them  a  venom 
which  one  cannot  breathe  without  being  poisoned  ;  they  have  said 
that  a  single  bite  was  enough  to  cause  a  mortal  fever.  The  truth, 
as  it  is  revealed  to  us  by  conscientious  observers,  is  still  stranger 
than  these  fictions  or  errors.  The  Termites  present  curious  modi- 
fications, on  the  nature  of  which  naturalists  are  not  agreed. 
There  are,  in  the  first  place,  the  perfect  insects,  males  and  females, 
which  are  provided  with  wings ;  then  there  are  the  neuters, 
which  are  divided  into  soldiers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  defend  the 
nest,  and  into  workers,  upon  whom  devolve  the  architectural 
works  and  household  cares.  These  last  are  smaller  than  the 
soldiers.  Latreille  and  some  other  naturalists  think  that  these 
workers  are  the  larvae  of  the  Termites.  Smeathman  thinks  that  the 

*  De  Quatrefages,  "  Souvenirs  d'un  Naturaliste,"  in  18mo.  Paris,  1854,  tome  ii. 
p.  377. 


406  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

soldiers  are  the  pupae.  M.  de  Quatrefages  admits  that  the  soldiers 
are  the  neuters,  and  that  the  workers  are  recruited  both  from  the 
larvaB  and  from  the  pupae.  It  may  be  admitted,  with  other  natu- 
ralists, that  the  soldiers  and  the  workers  are  neuters  :  the  first, 
abortive  males,  the  second,  abortive  females.  Here  is,  indeed,  what 
M.  Lespes  has  observed  in  the  Termites  of  the  Landes.  Among 
these  insects,  the  most  numerous  are  the  workers  :  their  size  is 
that  of  a  large  ant,  and  their  duties  are  to  excavate  galleries,  to 
search  for  provisions,  and  to  take  care  of  the  eggs,  the  larvae,  and 
the  pupae.  The  workers  have  a  rounded  head  and  short  mandibles, 
and  are  blind.  The  soldiers,  less  numerous,  have  an  enormous 
head, — nearly  as  big  as  the  rest  of  their  body, — very  strong  crossed 
mandibles,  and  are  blind  like  the  workers.  Anatomy  showed  M. 
Lespes  that  both  are  neuters — that  is,  the  soldiers  males,  and  the 
workers  females,  with  aborted  organs. 

The  larvae  of  the  females  much  resemble  the  workers.  Those 
which  are  to  become  males  or  females  are  distinguished  from  those 
which  are  to  become  neuters  by  very  slight  rudiments  of  wings, 
and  their  pupae  show  already  imperfect  wings,  hidden  in  cases ; 
furthermore,  they  have  eyes  hidden  under  the  skin.  The  males  and 
females  alone  have  eyes ;  they  also  have  wings,  which  they  lose 
immediately  after  the  coupling.  Those  which  proceed  from  the 
pupae  with  long  wing-cases  become  kings  and  queens  after  their 
swarming,  which  takes  place  at  the  end  of  May.  The  pupae  with 
short  wing-cases  become  perfect  in  the  month  of  August,  and  pro- 
duce larger  males  and  females,  which  become  the  kings  and  queens. 
All  these  couples  are  collected  by  the  neuters,  and  the  queens, 
large  and  small,  set  to  work  immediately  to  lay.  The  largest  are 
much  the  more  fruitful.  The  workers  do  not  seem  to  take  any 
care  of  them  at  all.  With  the  exception  of  this  last  peculiarity, 
everything  probably  goes  on  in  the  same  manner  with  the  exotic 
Termites ;  but  with  the  latter  the  queen  is  an  object  of  worship. 

Fig.  381  represents  the  four  types  of  the  republic  of  the  Termes 
ludfugus.  On  the  left  is  a  worker,  on  the  right  a  soldier,  in  the 
centre  a  winged  male  ;  all  three  very  much  magnified,  the  lines 
drawn  by  their  side  showing  the  natural  size.  Below  the  male  is 
the  pregnant  queen  (  D  D  D  D),  of  the  natural  size. 

Many  species  of  Termites  were  studied  with  care  by  the  English 


NEUROPTERA. 


407 


traveller,  Smeathman,  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  in  Southern 
Africa.     His  account  of  them  is  the  most  exact  and  most  complete 


Fig.  381.— Termes  lueifugus.        Male  (A),  Worker  ( B),    Soldier  (C),  magnified. 
Fecundated  female,  natural  size,  laying  (D  D  D  D). 

which  we   have   of  these  insects.*     The   largest   of  the   species 
observed  is  the  Termes  bellicosus.     The  workers  are  a  fifth  of  an 

*  "  Some  Account  of  the  Termites,"  &c.,  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol. 
Ixxi.,  1781. 


408  THE  INSECT  WOBLI). 

inch  long,  the  body  soft,  and  of  an  extreme  delicacy,  but  the  sharp 
mandibles  capable  of  attacking  the  hardest  bodies.  The  soldiers 
are  twice  as  long,  and  weigh  as  much  as  fifteen  workers,  and  may 
be  distinguished  by  their  enormous  horned  head,  armed  with  sharp 
pincers.  The  male  weighs  as  much  as  thirty  workers,  and  attains 
to  a  length  of  nearly  four-fifths  of  an  inch. 

But  the  pregnant  female  leaves  all  these  dimensions  far  behind. 
Her  abdomen  becomes  two  thousand  times   as   big   as   the  rest 
of  her  body  !     She  then  attains  to  six  inches  in  length,  and  weighs 
as  much  as  thirty  thousand  workers.     By  a  hideous  contrast,  the 
head  alone  does  not  increase  in  size.     D  D  D  D  (Fig.  381)  is  an 
exact  representation  of  this  monster.     She  is  always  motionless 
and  captive  in  her  cell,  entirely  occupied  in  laying.    Her  fecundity 
surpasses  all  bounds  :    sixty  eggs  a  minute,  more   than  eighty 
thousand  a  day.     Smeathman  is  inclined  to  think  that  this  pro- 
digious laying  goes  on  during  the  whole  of  the  year.     «  This  soft 
whitish  beast,"  says  M.  Michelet,  «  a  belly  rather  than  a  being,  is 
as  large  at  least  as  one's  thumb ;  a  traveller  professes  to  have  seen 
one  of  the  size  of  a  crawfish.    The  larger  she  is,  the  more  fruitful 
the  more  inexhaustible,   this  terrible  insect-mother  seems  to  be 
the  more  adored  by  the  fanatical  rabble/'     She  seems  to  be  their 
beau-ideal,  their  poetry,  their  enthusiasm.    If  you  carry  away  with 
any  rubbish  a  portion  of  their  city,  you  see  them  instantly  set  to 
work  at  the  breach  to  build  an  arch  which  may  protect  the  vene- 
rated head  of  the  mother,  to  reconstruct  her  royal  cell,  which  will 
become  (if  there  are  sufficient  materials)  the  centre,  the  base  of 
the  restored  city.     I  am  not  astonished,  though,  at  the  excessive 
love  which  this  people  show  for  this  instrument  of  fecundity.     If 
all  other  species  did  not  combine  to  destroy  them,  this  truly  pro- 
digious mother  would  make  them  masters  of  the  world,  and— what 
shall  I  say  ?— its  only  inhabitants.     The  fish  alone  would  be  left  • 
but   insects  would  perish.       It   suffices   to  be  remembered  that 
the   mother-bee   does  not  produce   in   a   year   what   the   female 
white  ant  can  produce  in  a  day.     By  her  they  would  be  enabled  to 
devour  everything;  but  they  are  weak  and  tasty,  and  so  every- 
thing devours  them."*     In  fact,  birds  are  very  greedy  after  ter- 
mites ;  poultry  destroy  immense  quantities  of  them.     Ants  give 
*  J.  Michelet,  "  L'Insecte,"  p.  328. 


NEUEOPTEEA.  409 

chase  to  them  and  eat  them  by  legions.  The  negroes  in  Southern 
Africa  cannot  be  sated  with  them.  They  gather  such  as  have  fallen 
into  the  water  and  roast  them  like  coffee ;  thus  prepared,  they  eat 
them  by  handfuls,  and  find  them  delicious.  The  Indians  smoke 
the  termites'  nests,  and  catch  those  that  have  wings.  They  knead 
them  up  with  flour  and  make  a  sort  of  cake  of  them.  Travellers, 
moreover,  all  agree  in  speaking  of  them  as  very  nice  food, 
comparing  their  flavour  to  that  of  marrow  or  of  a  sugared 
cream.  Smeathman  prefers  them  to  the  famous  palm  worm  (ver 
palmiste  of  the  colonists),  a  delicacy  known  in  South  America, 
which  is  the  larva  of  the  Calandera  palmarum,  a  species  of  beetle. 
It  seems,  however,  that  an  abuse  of  fried  termites  brings  on  a 
dysentery  which  may  prove  mortal. 

All  the  species  of  termites  are  miners,  but  the  greater  number 
are  also  architects  and  masons.  A  few  make  their  nest  round  a 
branch  of  a  tree.  This  nest  is  of  enormous  dimensions  :  it  is  as  large 
as  a  tun.  The  illustration  (Fig.  382) — after  a  drawing  in  Smeath- 
man's  work — shows  a  nest  of  the  Termes  bellicosus,  composed  of  bits 
of  wood  firmly  stuck  together  with  gum.  Above  their  subterranean 
galleries  the  greater  part  of  termites  construct  vast  edifices,  which 
contain  their  magazines  and  nurseries.  The  Termes  mordax  and 
Termes  atrox  raise  perfect  columns,  surmounted  by  capitals  which 
project  beyond  them  and  give  them  the  appearance  of  monstrous 
mushrooms.  These  columns  attain  a  height  of  twenty  inches, 
with  a  diameter  of  five ;  they  are  constructed  with  a  black  clay, 
which,  worked  up  by  the  insects,  acquires  great  hardness.  The 
interior  is  hollow,  or,  rather,  perforated  with  irregular  cells  ;  but 
the  most  curious  edifices  are  those  of  Termes  bellicosus.  These  are 
irregularly  conical  mounds,  flanked  by  a  certain  number  of  turrets 
decreasing  in  height.  Smeathman  gives  them  a  height  of  from 
ten  to  twelve  feet ;  but  Jobson*  affirms  that  he  has  seen  some  as 
high  as  twenty  feet.  If  men  constructed  monuments  so  dispro- 
portionate to  their  size,  the  great  pyramid  of  Griseh,  instead  of 
being  one  hundred  and  forty- six  metres  in  height,  would  be  one 
thousand  six  hundred,  and  would  be  higher  than  the  Puy- de- 
Dome  ! 

These  knolls  of  earth  are  of  a  solidity  which  will  bear  any  trial. 

*  "  History  of  Gambia." 


Fig.  382.— Nest  of  the  White  Ant  (Termes  bellicosus),  in  Central  Africa,  after  Smeathman. 
1,  male  ;  2,  4,  5,  neuters  ;  3,  gravid  female. 


NEUEOPTEEA.  411 

Not  only  can  many  men  mount  on  them  without  shaking  them, 
but  buffaloes  establish  themselves  upon  them  as  watch-towers, 
from  which  they  can  see  over  the  high  grass  which  covers  the 
plain,  if  the  lion  or  the  panther  is  threatening  them.  These 
edifices  are  hollow ;  but  their  sides  are  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches 
thick,  and  are  as  hard  as  a  rock.  They  are  hollowed  out  into 
galleries  which  connect  them  with  the  underground  dwelling. 
Under  the  dome  is  a  pretty  large  vacant  space,  a  sort  of  top  story 
or  attic  occupying  one-third  of  the  total  height,  and  which  keeps 
up  in  the  edifice  a  more  uniform  temperature  than  if  all  the  block 
had  been  filled  up.  On  a  level  with  the  ground  is  the  royal  cell, 
oblong,  with  a  flat  floor  and  a  rounded  ceiling,  and  pierced  with 
round  windows.  All  round  are  distributed  the  offices  ;  they  are 
rooms  also  with  rounded  and  vaulted  ceilings,  communicating  with 
each  other  by  corridors.  On  the  sides  rise  the  magazines,  with 
their  backs  placed  against  the  walls  of  the  house  ;  they  are  filled 
with  gums  and  with  vegetable  juices  solidified  and  in  powder.  On 
the  ceiling  of  the  royal  chamber  rise  pillars  of  about  two  feet  in 
height,  which  support  the  egg  rooms.  These  are  little  cells  with 
partitions  of  sawdust  stuck  together  with  gum,  which  separate  at 
the  opening  the  large  chambers  from  the  clay  halls.  Placed  between 
the  attics  and  the  great  nave  surmounting  the  royal  hall,  the 
nursery  is  in  the  most  desirable  position  possible  for  uniformity  of 
temperature  and  for  ventilation. 

The  royal  cell  encloses  an  unique  couple,  objects  of  the  most 
assiduous  attentions,  but  kept  in  closest  captivity,  for  the  doors  are 
too  narrow  to  afford  a  passage  to  the  monstrous  queen,  and  even 
to  the  male,  who  keeps  generally  crouching  by  her  side.  Thousands 
of  servants  busy  themselves  round  the  mother  ;  they  feed  her  and 
carry  away,  night  and  day,  the  myriads  of  eggs  which  she  lays. 
The  eggs  are  placed  in  the  egg  houses,  where  they  give  birth  to 
white  larvae,  resembling  the  workers,  which  nourish  themselves  at 
first  on  a  sort  of  mouldy  fungus  which  grows  on  the  partitions  of 
their  cells.  They  then  become  pupae,  then  neuters  or  males  and 
females,  the  last  two  being  provided  with  wings. 

On  a  stormy  evening  the  males  and  females  come  out  of  their 
nest  by  millions  to  couple  in  the  air ;  then  immediately  afterwards 
they  fall  to  the  ground  and  lose  their  wings,  when  they  become  an 


412  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

easy  prey  to  their  enemies.  A  few  couples  only,  picked  up  by  the 
workers,  are  put  under  shelter,  and  become  the  nucleus  of  a  new 
colony.  The  soldiers  have  no  other  occupation  but  to  defend  the 
nest.  If  man  attacks  them,  at  the  first  blow  with  the  pickaxe, 
they  are  to  be  seen  running  out  furiously.  They  attack  their 
aggressors,  pierce  them  till  they  bring  blood,  and  with  their  sharp 
pincers  hang  on  to  the  wound,  and  allow  themselves  to  be  torn  to 
pieces  rather  than  leave  go  their  hold.  The  negroes  who  have  no 
clothes  are  soon  put  to  flight ;  Europeans  only  get  off  with 
their  trousers  very  much  spotted  with  blood.  During  the 
combat,  the  soldiers  strike  from  time  to  time  on  the  ground  with 
their  pincers,  and  produce  a  little  dry  sound,  to  which  the 
workers  answer  by  a  sort  of  whistling.  The  workers  immediately 
make  their  appearance ;  and  with  their  pellets  of  mortar  set  to 
work  to  stop  up  the  holes,  and  to  repair  the  damage.  The  sol- 
diers then  re-enter,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  number,  who 
remain  to  superintend  the  work  of  the  masons ;  they  give,  at 
intervals,  the  usual  signal,  and  the  workers  answer  by  a  whistling 
which  means  "  Here  we  are !  "  as  they  redouble  their  activity.  If 
the  attack  recommences,  the  soldiers  are  at  their  posts,  defending 
the  ground  inch  by  inch.  During  this  time  the  workers  mask  the 
passages,  stop  up  the  galleries,  and  wall  up  with  care  the  royal 
cell.  If  you  manage  to  penetrate  as  far  as  this  sanctuary,  you 
may  pick  up  and  carry  away  from  the  cell  which  contains  them 
the  precious  couple  without  the  workers  in  attendance  on  them 
interrupting  their  work,  for  they  are  blind. 

They  never  venture  in  sight  except  in  extreme  cases.  No  one 
is  ignorant  of  the  terrible  destruction  these  insects  occasion  to 
the  works  of  man.  Invisible  to  those  whom  they  threaten,  they 
push  on  their  galleries  to  the  very  walls  of  their  houses.  They 
perforate  the  floors,  the  beams,  the  wood-work,  the  furniture, 
respecting  always  the  surface  of  the  objects  attacked  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  is  impossible  to  be  aware  of  their  hidden  ravages. 
They  even  take  care  to  prevent  the  buildings  they  eat  away  from 
falling  by  filling  up  with  mortar  the  parts  they  have  hollowed 
out.  But  these  precautions  are  only  employed  if  the  place  seems 
suitable,  and  if  they  intend  to  prolong  their  sojourn  there. 
In  the  other  case,  they  destroy  the  wood  with  inconceivable 


NEUEOPTEEA.  413 

rapidity.  They  have  been  known,  in  one  single  night,  to  pierce  the 
whole  of  a  table  leg  from  top  to  bottom,  and  then  the  table  itself ; 
and  then,  still  continuing  to  pierce  their  way,  to  descend  through 
the  opposite  leg,  after  having  devoured  the  contents  of  a  trunk 
placed  upon  the  table.  On  account  of  the  devastations  which 
they  occasion,  Linnseus  has  called  the  white  ant  the  greatest  plague 
of  the  Indies. 

There  exist  in  France  two  species  of  termites,  the  Termes 
lucefugus,  a  little  insect  of  a  brilliant  black  (at  least  in  the  male)) 
with  russety  legs,  which  is  common  enough  in  the  moors  of 
Gascony;  and  the  Yellow-necked  White  ant  ( Termes  jlavicolis) , 
which  lives  in  the  interior  of  trees  and  does  a  great  deal  of  mis- 
chief in  Spain  and  in  the  south  of  France  to  olive  and  other 
precious  trees,  whilst  the  first  attacks  oak  and  fir  trees. 
Latreille  established  that  it  is  the  Termes  lucifugus  which 
causes  such  havoc  at  La  Rochelle,  at  Rochefort,  at  Saintes,  at 
Tournay  Charente,  in  the  Isle  of  Aix,  &c.,  where  many  houses 
have  been  completely  undermined  by  these  terrible  insects.  But 
M.  de  Quatrefages  *  has  proved  that  the  habits  of  the  termes  found 
in  towns  differ  in  many  essential  points  from  the  habits  of  termes 
in  the  country.  And  so  it  is  most  probable  that  the  former 
belong  to  an  exotic  species,  which  must  have  been  unfortunately 
imported  into  France  by  a  merchant  vessel.  According  to 
M.  Bobe-Moreau,f  it  was  only  in  1797  that  termites  were  dis- 
covered for  the  first  time  in  Rochefort,  in  a  house  which  had 
stood  for  a  long  while  uninhabited,  and  which  they  had  com- 
pletely undermined.  In  1804,  Latreille  relates,  as  a  "hear- 
say," that  the  termites  had  for  some  years  made  the  inhabitants 
of  Rochefort  uneasy,  but  in  1829,  the  same  author  tells  a  very 
different  tale.  He  speaks  with  dismay  of  the  ravages  committed 
by  this  insect  in  the  workshops  belonging  to  the  Royal  Navy. 
The  importation  of  the  termes  into  France  is  then  of  recent  date. 
A  note  which  was  sent  to  M.  de  Quatrefages  by  M.  Beltremieux, 
fixes  with  still  greater  accuracy  the  date  of  the  importation 
of  the  termites  ;  it  must  have  taken  place  about  1780,  a  period  at 

*  *'  Note  sur  les  Termites  de  la  Rochelle."  Annales  des  Sciences  Naturettes,  3e 
serie,  tome  xx.,  p.  18.  1853. 

t  "  Memoire  sur  les  Termites  observes  a  Rochefort."     Saintes,  1813. 


414  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

which  the  brothers  Poupet,  rich  ship-owners,  caused  bales  of  goods 
to  come  from  St.  Domingo  to  Rochefort,  to  La  Rochelle,  and  to  other 
places  in  that  neighbourhood  which  possess  storehouses.  The 
ravages  which  the  termites  have  committed  in  the  towns  of  La  Sain- 
tonge  are  really  frightful.  Like  Valencia,  in  New  Grenada,  these 
towns  will  find  themselves  one  of  these  days  suspended  over  cata- 
combs. At  Tournay-Charente,  the  floor  of  a  dining-room  fell  in,  and 
the  Amphytrion  and  his  guests  tumbled  together  into  the  cellar. 
There  may  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory of  Paris,  the  wooden  columns  which  supported  this  room,  and 
which  were  preserved  by  Audouin,  who  had  been  sent  on  a  mission 
to  report  on  the  damages  done.  Audouin  also  selected,  as  an 
object  of  curiosity,  a  lady's  bridal  veil,  which  had  been  entirely 
riddled  with  holes  by  the  termites. 

At  La  Eochelle  these  insects  took  possession  of  the  prefect's 
house  (built  by  the  brothers  Poupet),  and  of  the  Arsenal.  There 
they  invaded  offices,  apartments,  court,  and  garden.  They  could 
not  drive  in  a  stake  or  leave  a  plank  in  the  garden  but  it  was 
attacked  the  next  day.  One  fine  morning  the  archives  of  the  de- 
partment were  found  destroyed  without  there  being  the  smallest 
trace  of  the  damage  to  be  seen  on  the  exterior.  The  termites  had 
mined  through  the  wood- work,  pierced  the  cardboard,  eaten  up 
the  parchments  and  the  papers  of  the  administration,  but  had 
always  scrupulously  respected  the  upper  leaf  and  edges  of  all  the 
leaves.  It  was  by  mere  chance  that  a  clerk,  less  superficial  than 
his  colleagues,  one  fine  day  raised  one  of  the  leaves  which  hid  this 
detritus,  and  thus  discovered  the  destruction  of  the  archives.  All 
the  papers  of  the  prefecture  are  now  shut  up  in  boxes  of  zinc. 

These  termites  do  not  venture,  any  more  than  their  congeners, 
into  the  light  of  day.  These  terrible  miners  always  envelope 
themselves  in  obscurity,  and  construct  on  all  sides  covered 
galleries  as  they  advance  into  a  building.  M.  Blanchard  and 
M.  de  Quatrefages  saw  in  La  Rochelle  the  galleries  made  by 
them.  They  are  tubes  formed  of  agglutinated  material,  which 
are  stuck  along  the  walls  in  the  cellars  and  the  apartments,  or 
else  suspended  to  the  roof  like  stalactites.  Certain  parts  of  Agen 
and  of  Bordeaux  begin  also  to  suffer  from  the  ravages  of  these 
insects.  The  danger  appears  to  be  imminent. 


NEUROPTERA.  415 

We  are  indebted  to  M.  de  Quatrefages  for  some  interesting  ex- 
periments on  the  termites  of  La  Rochelle.  Not  only  has  the 
learned  naturalist  helped  to  make  known  to  us  the  habits  of 
these  dark-loving  insects,  but  he  has  also  told  us  how  to  destroy 
them.  Different  substances  had  been  tried  in  vain  to  stop  these 
terrible  ravages — essence  of  turpentine,  arsenical  soap,  boiling  lye, 
&c.  M.  de  Quatrefages  had  recourse  to  gaseous  injections.  He 
tried  successively  bioxide  of  azote,  nitric  acid,  chlorine  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  chlorine  above  all  fully  answered  his  hopes.  With 
pure  chlorine,  he  killed  the  termites  instantaneously  ;  mixed  with 
nine- tenths  of  air,  he  suffocated  them  in  half  an  hour.  a  For 
attacking  the  termites,"  says  M.  de  Quatrefages,  "one  ought 
to  choose  by  preference  the  period  of  their  reproduction,  so 
as  to  destroy  the  pregnant  females.  It  is  probable  that,  like 
their  exotic  congeners,  the  termites  of  France  will  endeavour  to 
defend  themselves  by  walling  up  the  interior  of  their  galleries  at 
the  first  signs  of  an  attack.  The  operator  must  then  act  with  a 
great  deal  of  promptitude,  and  direct  the  apparatus  as  much  as 
possible  into  the  very  centre  of  their  habitation,  where  the  galleries 
are  the  broadest  and  the  most  numerous. 

"  With  whatever  care  one  acts,  and  whatever  may  be  the  success 
of  a  first  attempt,  it  seems  to  me  impossible  to  destroy  in  one 
campaign  all  the  termites  of  a  locality.  In  this,  as  in  all  opera- 
tions of  the  same  kind,  a  certain  amount  of  perseverance  is 
necessary,  especially  if  it  is  in  a  town  or  in  a  country  infested  by 
them  to  a  very  great  degree ;  in  that  case,  one  will  be  forced  to 
repeat  the  operation  from  time  to  time.  When,  on  the  contrary, 
the  termites  are  already  cantoned,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  success 
ought  to  be  lasting.  This  is  fortunately  the  case  at  La  Rochelle, 
and  by  knowing  how  to  profit  by  it,  one  may  doubtless  prevent 
the  spread  of  these  pests,  which,  at  one  time  or  another,  may  attack 
the  whole  town."* 

In  1864,  the  Lords  of  the  English  Admiralty  addressed  an  in- 
quiry to  the  Entomological  Society  of  London,  on  the  best  means 
of  preserving  wood  from  the  attacks  of  the  Indian  termites.  In 
answer  to  this  inquiry,  the  Entomological  Society  recommended 

*  "Memoires  sur  la  destruction  des  Termites,"  Annales  des  Sciences  Naturettes, 
3e  serie,  tome  xx.,  p.  15. 


416 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


many  processes :  the  injection  of  quicklime  or  of  creosote,  the 
application  of  arsenical  soap,  &c.  But  it  does  not  appear  that 
these  processes  are  infallibly  efficacious,  nor,  above  all,  easy  to 
employ. 

Among   other   Neuroptera   which   undergo    incomplete   meta- 
morphoses we  will  mention,  first,  the  genera  Perla  and  Nemoura* 


Fig.  383.— Larva  of  Perla 
bicaudata. 


Fig.  384. — Larva  of  a 
Nemoura. 


Fig.  385.— Perla  marginata 
(larva). 


(Figs.  383,  384,  and  385),  which  flutter  about  the  banks  of  rivers, 
and  settle  on  stones,  shrubs,  and  aquatic  plants.  Their  larvae  are 
naked,  without  cases,  and  always  live  in  the  water,  hiding  themselves 
un,der  stones,  'to  watch  for  small  insects,  for  they  are  carnivorous. 
One  sees  them  often  balancing  their  bodies,  holding  on  to  a  pebble. 
They  go  through  the  winter,  and  only  become  pupae  in  the  spring. 
After  moulting,  they  have  the  rudiments  of  wings.  Very  soon 
afterwards  the  pupae  leave  the  water,  and  undergo  their  meta- 
morphosis. The  adult  lives  only  a  few  days,  for  its  mouth  is  not 
suited  for  receiving  food.  The  larvae  have,  at  the  end  of  their 
bodies,  two  long  threads,  which  remain  in  the  perfect  Perla,  but 
not  in  the  perfect  Nemoura ;  the  latter  lose  the  two  caudal  hairs 

*  From  vrjfjia,  a  thread  ;  and  ovpd,  a  tail. — ED. 


NEUKOPTERA. 


417 


when   they  arrive  at  the  adult  state.     One  species  of  Perla  is 
very  common  on  the  quays  of  Paris. 


Fig.  386.— Perla  bicaudata. 

The  Epkemerida,  or  May-fly  family,  have  long,  slender  bodies, 
provided  with  two  or  three  long  silky  hairs.  Their  name  indi- 
cates the  short  duration  of  their  existence.  They  appear  in  great 


Fig.  387. — Nemoura  variegatus. 


Fig.  388.— Nemoura  variegatus  (larva). 


numbers  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  Their  hatching  takes 
place  at  sunset ;  they  have  coupled  and  laid  their  eggs  by  sun- 
rise next  day,  and  have  ceased  to  live ;  so  that  the  banks  of  rivers, 
of  ponds,  of  lakes,  are  strewed  with  their  bodies.  Their  number 
is  sometimes  so  considerable  that,  according  to  Reaumur,  the  soil 
seems  as  if  it  were  covered  with  snow,  and  they  are  gathered  up 
for  manure.  The  Common  Ephemera,  or  May-fly  (Ephemera 

E  E 


418 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


vulgata,  Fig.  389),  is  of  a  brown  colour,  banded  with  yellow,  and 
the  wings  smoky,  with  brown  spots.  These  insects  are  remarkable 
for  their  elegant  flight;  they  are  continu- 
ally rising  and  falling.  When  they  move 
their  wings,  they  rise ;  but  if  their  wings, 
though  spread  out,  remain  motionless,  as 
also  the  silky  hairs  which  form  their  tail, 
they  fall  again.  They  may  be  seen  in 
myriads  in  places  where  there  is  much 
water. 

We  have  said  that  the  Ephemera  live 
only  for  a  few  hours.  This  is  the  general 
rule ;  but  their  existence  can  be  prolonged 
for  ten  or  fifteen  days  by  preventing  their 
copulation.  If,  however,  the  duration  of 
the  life  of  these  insects  is  so  short  when 
they  have  reached  the  perfect  state,  which 
is  when  the  conformation  of  the  mouth  pre- 
vents them  from  taking  any  nourishment, 
their  larva  state  is  of  very  long  continu- 
ance. Swammerdam  says,  in  his  curious 
memoir,  entitled  "Vita  Ephemeri,"  it  is 
not  less  than  three  years. 

The  females  lay  their  eggs  in  one  single  mass,  and  let  them 
fall  into  the  water,  in  the  form  of  a  packet.  The  larvae  which 
come  out  of  them  are  very  active,  and  swim  with  great  ease ;  but 
generally  conceal  themselves  under  the  pebbles  at  the  bottom. 
The  sides  of  their  abdomen  are  provided  with  gills,  very  much 
fringed,  which  serve  them,  not  only  for  breathing  the  air  under 
the  water  in  the  same  way  that  fish  do,  but  also  for  swimming. 
The  larvae  have,  at  the  extremity  of  their  body,  two  or  three 
hairs,  like  the  perfect  insect.  They  hollow  out  galleries  in  the 
beds  of  rivers  and  ponds,  and  live  on  small  insects.  The  pupa 
(Fig.  391)  differs  only  from  the  larva  (Fig.  390)  in  having 
the  rudiments  of  wings.  When  about  to  undergo  their  meta- 
morphosis, they  come  out  of  the  water  and  cling  to  plants,  &c. 
The  skin  cracks  on  the  back  when  it  is  dry,  and  there  comes 
out  a  heavy  insect,  which  flies  feebly,  and  has  opaque  wings. 


Fig.  389.— Ephemera  vulgata 
imago. 


NETJEOPTEEA.  419 

It  is  still  enveloped  in  a  very  thin  skin,  of  which  a  last  moult. 


Fig.  390. — Larva  of  an  Ephemera.  Fig.  391. — Pupa  of  an  Ephemera. 

after  a  few  hours,  frees  it.      This  skin  remains  sticking  to  the 

plant  on   which  the    moulting  was 

effected,  preserving  the  shape  of  the 

insect.    This  moult  is  peculiar  to  the 

Ephemerae  ;  it  is  the  transition  from 

the  false   imago  (pseudo-imago)   to 

the  imago. 

In  the  same  family  is  the  genus 
Cloelon  whose  larvae  prey  on  minute 
insects.  The  Cloeon  diptera  (Fig. 
392),  which  has  only  two  wings,  is 
often  to  be  met  with  in  houses, 
resting  on  the  window  panes  and 
curtains.  All  these  insects  keep 
badly  in  collections  ;  they  lose  their 
shape,  and  their  members  are  so 
fragile  that  the  least  shock  suffices 
to  break  them. 

The   Libellulas,    or    Dragon-flies,  Fig.  392.-cioeon  diptera. 

are  insects  of  a  well-defined  type.     The  elegance  of  their  shape, 

EE    2J 


420  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

fche  grace  of  their  movements,  have  won  for  them  among  the 
French  their  common  appellation  of  "  Demoiselles."  They  are 
always  of  largish  size.  Many  are  of  bright  and  metallic  colours, 
which  are  not  inferior  in  beauty  to  those  of  butterflies.  Their 
wings,  of  an  extreme  delicacy,  always  glossy  and  brilliant,  present 
varied  tints ;  sometimes  they  are  completely  transparent,  and  have 
all  the  colours  of  the  rainbow.  Often,  the  colour  of  the  males 
differs  from  that  of  the  females.  They  may  be  seen  fluttering 
about  on  the  water  during  the  whole  summer,  especially  when  the 
sun  is  at  its  highest.  They  fly  with  extreme  rapidity,  skimming 
over  the  water  at  intervals,  and  escaping  easily  when  one  wishes 
to  catch  them.  Nothing  is  prettier  than  a  troop  of  dragon-flies 
taking  their  sport  on  the  side  of  a  pond  or  on  the  banks  of  a 
river,  on  a  fine  summer's  day,  when  a  burning  sun  causes  their 
wings  to  shine  with  most  vivid  colours. 

In  the  perfect  state,  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  larva  and  the  pupa, 
the  Libellulas  are  carnivorous.  Their  rapid  flight  makes  them 
expert  hunters,  and  their  enormous  eyes  embrace  the  whole 
horizon.  They  seize,  while  on  the  wing,  flies  and  butterflies,  and 
tear  them  to  pieces  immediately  with  their  strong  mandibles. 
Sometimes,  the  ardour  of  the  chase  leading  them  on  far  from 
the  streams,  they  are  met  with  in  the  fields.  The  female  lays  her 
eggs  in  the  water,  from  which  emerge  larvae  which  remind  one 
somewhat  of  the  form  of  the  insect,  only  their  body  is  more  com- 
pact and  their  head  flattened.  The  larvae  and  pupae  inhabit  the 
bottom  of  ponds  and  streams,  where,  keeping  out  of  sight  in  the 
mud,  they  seek  for  insects,  molluscs,  small  fish,  &c.  If  any 
prey  passes  within  their  reach,  they  dart  forwards,  like  a  spring, 
a  very  singular  arm,  which  represents  the  under  lip.  It  is  a  sort 
of  animated  mask,  armed  with  strong  jagged  pincers  and  supported 
by  strong  joints,  the  which,  taken  together,  is  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  body  itself.  This  mask  acts  at  the  same  time  as  a  lip  and  an 
arm ;  it  seizes  the  prey  on  its  passage  and  conveys  it  to  the  mouth. 
"When  any  aquatic  insect  approaches  them  at  a  time  when 
they  are  in  a  humour  for  eating,"  says  Charles  de  Greer,  "  they 
shoot  the  mask  forward  very  suddenly  and  like  a  flash  of  light- 
ning, and  seize  the  insect  between  their  two  pincers ;  then,  draw- 
ing back  the  mask,  they  bring  the  prey  up  to  their  teeth,  and 


NEUKOPTERA. 


421 


begin  to  eat  it.  I  have  remarked  that  they  do  not  spare  those 
of  their  own  kind,  but  that  they  eat  each  other  up  when  they  can, 
and  I  have  also  seen  them  devouring  very  small  fish  which  I  put 
by  them.  It  is  very  difficult  for  other  insects  to  avoid  their  blows, 
because,  walking  along  generally  in  the  water  very  gently,  and, 
as  it  were,  with  measured  steps,  almost  in  the  same  way  a  cat  does 
on  the  look-out  for  birds,  they  suddenly  dart  forward  their  mask 
and  seize  their  prey  instantaneously."  *  Fig.  393  represents,  to 
the  left,  the  larva  of  the  dragon-fly,  with  the  instrument  of  attack 
which  we  have  called  a  "  mask,"  and  which  it  is  making  use  of 


Fig.  393.— Larva  of  the  Libellula  and  the  perfect  insect  emerging. 

for  seizing  a  small  insect;   on  the   right,    the   adult  dragon-fly 
coming  out  of  the  nymph. 

The  respiration  of  these  larvae  is  very  singular.  Their  abdomen 
is  terminated  by  appendages  which  they  open  to  allow  the  water  to 
penetrate  into  the  digestive  tube,  whose  sides  are  furnished  with 
gills  communicating  with  the  tracheae.  The  water,  deprived  of 
oxygen,  is  then  thrown  out,  and  the  larva  advances  thus  in  the 
water  by  the  recoil.  It  has  no  tufts  of  lateral  gills,  which  in  the 

*  Charles  de  Geer,  "  Memoires  pour  servir  k  1'Histoire  des  Insectes,"  tome  ii. 
2e  partie,  p.  674. 


422  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

case  of  the  Ephemerae  do  the  duty  of  fins.  The  pupa  already 
presents  stumps  of  wings.  To  effect  its  metamorphosis  it  drags 
itself  out  of  the  water,  where  it  has  lived  for  nearly  a  year, 
climbs  slowly  to  some  neighbouring  plant,  and  hangs  itself 
there.  Very  soon  the  sun  dries  and  hardens  its  skin,  which 
all  of  a  sudden  becomes  bright,  and  cracks.  The  dragon-fly  then 
sets  free  its  head  and  its  thorax,  and  its  legs,  its  wings,  still  soft  and 
wanting  in  vigour,  gain  strength  by  coming  in  contact  with  the 
air,  and,  after  a  few  hours,  they  have  attained  their  full  develop- 
ment. Immediately  the  insect  abandons,  like  a  worn-out  suit,  the 
dull  slimy  skin  which  had  covered  it  so  long,  and  which  still  pre- 
serves its  shape  (Fig.  393),  and  dashes  off  in  quest  of  prey. 


Fig.  394  —Libel lula  depressa,  the  Common  Dragon-fly. 

The  Libellulas  are  common  all  over  the  world.  Their  type  is 
the  Libellula  depressa  (Fig.  394),  very  common  in  Europe.  The 
male  is  brown,  with  the  abdomen  blue  underneath ;  the  female,  of 
a  sort  of  olive-yellow,  bordered  by  yellow  on  the  sides.  Both 
have  the  abdomen  broad  and  flattened. 

The  ^Eskna,  with  a  cylindrical  abdomen,  attains  to  the  length 
of  two  and  a  half  inches.  Its  flight  is  more  rapid  than  that  of  the 
swallow.  The  Calepteryx  flies  more  slowly.  The  male  is  of  a 
metallic  blue,  its  diaphanous  wings  are  traversed  by  a  band  of 
greenish  blue ;  the  female,  of  a  bronzed  green,  has  wings  of  a 
metallic  green,  with  a  yellowish  mark  on  the  edge.  These  insects 
rest  on  reeds,  retaining  their  wings  in  a  vertical  position. 


NEUEOPTEEA. 


423 


The  Agarions,  which  are  of  the  same  family,  have  the  body 
white,  brown,  or  green,  and  the  eyes  very  prominent.  They  are 
more  slim,  and  graceful  than  the  Libellulas  properly  so  called  ; 
their  larvae  are  very  elongated. 

In  the  spring,  one  meets  in  the  woods  with  insects  having  large 
heads  and  elongated  thoraces.  The  females  have  a  long  auger,  with 
which  to  deposit  their  eggs  under  the  bark  of  trees,  where  their 
larvae,  which  feed  on  insects,  and  twist  themselves  about  like 
small  serpents,  live.  The  pupae  are  also  very  active ;  they  re- 


Fig.  395.— Male  Raphidia.        Fig.  396.— Larva  of  a  Raphidia.        Fig.  397.— Pupa  of  a  Raphidia. 

semble  the  adults  very  much,  and  have  the  wings  laid  against 
the  body.  These  insects,  which  are  met  with  everywhere,  but 
always  in  small  numbers,  are  the  Raphidias,  which  we  see  repre- 
sented (Figs.  395,  396,  397)  in  the  state  of  larva,  pupa,  and  adult, 
and  the  Mantispas  (Fig.  398),  one  species 
of  which  is  common  in  the  south  of  Europe. 

M.  Blanchard  classes  in  the  same  tribe  the 
genus  Semblis,  whose  larvae  are  aquatic,  with 
scaly  heads,  provided  with  eyes,  and  with 
curved  mandibles  and  short  antennas.  The 
larvae  and  the  pupae  breathe,  like  those  of  the  F^-  39s.-MantisPa  pagana. 
Ephemera,  by  articulated  external  fillets  or  gills,  analogous  to 


Fig.  399.— Semblis  lutarius,  imago,  pupa,  and  larva. 

those  of  fishes.     Nevertheless  the  pupae  live  on  land,  not  in  water. 


424  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

They  hide  themselves  in  the  earth  at  the  foot  of  trees,  and  the 
adult  issues  forth  at  the  end  of  a  fortnight,  leaving  its  pupa  skin 
behind.  It  lives  but  a  few  days.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  on 
reeds,  stones,  &c.  Fig.  399  represents  the  Mud  Semblis  in  its 
three  states. 

We  now  come  to  those  Neuroptera  which  undergo  complete  meta- 
morphoses. They  are  the  Myrmeleonidae,  of  which  the  Ant-lion 
(Myrmeleo)  is  the  most  prominent  type,  and  the  Phryganidce,  or 
Caddis-flies. 

The  larvae  of  the  Ant-lions  live  on  the  land,  and  are  carnivorous. 
"When  about  to  undergo  their  transformation  into  pupae,  they  spin 
for  themselves  a  silky  cocoon.  The  larvae  of  the  Phryganeas,  on 
the  contrary,  live  in  the  water.  They  surround  themselves 


Fig.  400. — Ant-lion  (Myrnteleo  formicarius). 

with  a  sort  of  protecting  case,  composed  of  a  silky  shell  and 
incrustations  of  all  sorts.  The  pupae,  as  well  as  the  larvae  of  these 
insects  breathe  by  means  of  gills. 

The  Ant-lion  (Myrmeleo  formicarius,  Fig.  400)  is  found  in  the 
environs  of  Paris.  It  is  an  elegant  insect,  resembling  the  dragon- 
fly ;  and  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  antennae.  Its  larva  is  of 
a  rosy,  rather  dirty  grey,  with  little  tufts  of  blackish  hair  on  its 
very  voluminous  abdomen.  Its  legs  are  rather  long  and  slender  ; 
the  front  legs  are  separated  forwards,  whilst  the  hind  legs  are 
fixed  against  the  body;  and  only  permit  the  animal  to  walk  back- 
wards. These  larvae  are  met  with  in  great  abundance  in  sandy 
places  very  much  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  There  they  con- 
struct for  themselves  a  sort  of  funnel  in  the  sand  (Fig.  401),  by 


NEUEOPTBRA. 


425 


.escribing,  backwards,  the  turns  of  a  spiral  whose  diameter 
gradually  diminishes.  Their  strong  square  head  serves  them  as  a 
pade  with  which  to  throw  the  sand  far  away.  They  then  hide 
hemselves  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  their  head  alone  being  out,  and 
vait  with  patience  for  some  insect  to  come  near.  Scarcely  has  the 
mt-lion  perceived  its  victim  on  the  borders  of  its  funnel,  when  it 
throws  at  it  a  shower  of  dust  to  alarm  it,  and  make  it  fall  to  the 
Bottom  of  the  precipice,  which  does  not  fail  to  happen.  Then  it 
seizes  it  with  its  sharp  mandibles,  and  sucks  its  blood;  after 
which  it  throws  its  empty  skin  out  of  the  hole  and  resumes  the 


Fig.  401.— Ant-lion's  funnel. 


Fig.  402. — Larva,  cocoon,  and 
pupa  of  the  Ant-lion. 


look-out.  Ants  especially  become  its  prey,  whence  its  name  of 
Ant-lion.  Towards  the  month  of  July,  the  larvae  make  them- 
selves a  spherical  cocoon,  mixed  with  grains  of  sand,  in  which 
they  are  transformed  into  pupae  which  are  hatched  towards 
the  end  of  August.  The  perfect  Ant-lions  diffuse  an  odour  of 
roses ;  their  flight,  which  is  weak,  distinguishes  them  from  the 
dragon-flies.  We  meet  in  the  south  of  France  with  a  very 
beautiful  species  of  Ant-lion,  the  Myrmeleo  libelluloides  (Fig  403) ; 
its  larva  can  move  forwards,  and  does  not  dig  itself  a  funnel. 

The  genus  Ascalaphus  (Fig.  406)  is  remarkable  for  the  long 
clubbed  antennae  of  its  members,  and  for  their  rapid  flight.  They 
like  the  sun,  and  live  especially  in  hot  countries ;  however,  one 
meets  with  the  Ascalaphics,  in  the  month  of  July,  near  Paris, 
on  the  dry  declivities  of  Lardy  and  of  Poquency.  Their  Iarva3 


426 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


(Fig.  405)  have  mandibles  adapted  for  suction.     They  watch  for 
insects  under  heaps  of  stones,  and  spring  upon  their  prey. 

first  states  of  the  Nemoptera*  (Fig  407)   are  as  yet  little 


Fig.  403,— Mynneleo  libelluloides. 

known.  They  are  insects  with  wings  spotted  with  yellow  and 
black,  the  lower  ones  almost  linear,  and  are  met  with  in  southern 
countries,  and  but  very  rarely  in  the  south  of  France. 

*  From  j'7/jUfl,  a  thread,  and  irrfpov,  a  wing. — EJD. 


NEUEOPTEEA. 


427 


The  Hemerobeuses,   to   which   are   given  by  the   French   the 
name  of  Demoiselles  terrestres,  or  Land  dragon-flies,  are  very  small 


Fig.  404.— Larva  of         Fig.  405.— Larva 
Myrmeleo  libeUuloides.       of  Ascalaphus. 


Fig.  406.— Ascalaphus  meridionalis. 


delicate  insects,  of  an  apple- green  colour,  with  golden  red  eyes. 
These  insects  leave  on  the  fingers,  when  seized,  an  offensive  odour. 


Fig.  407.— Nemroptera  Coa. 

Reaumur  calls  them  Lions  des  pucerons  (plant-lice  lions),  because 
their  larvae,  which  resemble  the  larvae  of  the  Ant-lions,  and  which 
live  on  plants,  feed  on  plant- 
lice.  They  attack  also  cater- 
pillars. Their  mandibles  are 
provided  with  a  canal  for  suc- 
tion, like  those  of  the  foregoing 
species. 

The    insects    of    the    genus  Kg.  m-osmyius  macuiatu.. 

Osmylus  (Fig.  408)  are  rather  rare ;  but  may  be  found  in  the 
month  of  August  in  the  shrubs  which  border  ponds.  They  also 
belong  to  the  HemerobidcB.  Their  larvae  live  in  wet  ground. 


428 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


The  Panorpatce  constitute  a  singular  little  family,  having  a 
peculiar  shaped  head,  which  is  prolonged  to  a  sort  of  long  and 
slender  beak.  Aristotle  called  them  Scorpion  flies,  and  thought 
they  were  winged  scorpions.  The  Panorpas,  properly  so  called 
(Fig.  409),  are  found  on  hedges  and  plants  during  the  summer. 
They  have  slim  bodies  spotted  with  yellow  and  black,  and  four 
straight  wings,  also  spotted  with  black.  In  the  males,  the  abdo- 
men terminates  in  a  pair  of  pincers  (Fig.  410),  which  rather 


\ 


Fig.  409. — Panorpa,  male  and  female. 

remind  one  of  the  tail  of  a  scorpion,  and  which  are  destined  to 
seize  dragon- flies,  which  they  kill  by  piercing  with  their  beak. 
The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  ground  (Fig.  411).  In  a  week, 
the  larva  makes  its  appearance ;  it  is  a  month  in  developing,  it 
then  buries  itself  still  deeper  in  the  earth,  and  changes  into  a 


Fig.  410.— Pincer  of  male  Panorpa.  Fig.  411.— Female  Panorpa  laying. 

pupa,  which,  after  a  fortnight,  comes  again  into  the  light  in  the 
form  of  a  perfect  insect.  There  are  two  other  genera  of  Panor- 
patce,  of  which  Bittacus  tipularis  (Fig.  412) — resembling  a 
large  gnat,  furnished  with  four  wings  —  and  Boreus  hyemalis 
(Fig.  413)  —  of  a  brilliant  black,  met  with  in  Sweden  and 
in  the  elevated  parts  of  the  Alps,  jumping  about  on  the  snow, 


NEUROPTERA. 


429 


in  considerable  troops — are  representatives.     The  latter  has  lately 
been  discovered  in  England. 


Fig.  412.— Bittacus  tipularis.  Fig.  413,— Boreus  hyemalis  (magnified  and  natural  size). 

The  Phryganida,  or  Caddis-flies,  are  known  by  their  larvae,  of 
which  anglers  make  great  use.  Reaumur  classed  them  as  aquatic 
moths.  Their  soft  and  delicate  body  is  protected  by  a  case,  to 


Fig.  415.— Phryganea  rhombica, 
in  repose. 


Fig.  414.— Larva  of  Phryganea  rhombica.  Fig.  416.— Phrygaiiea  rhombica. 

which  they  cling  by  two  hooks,  placed  at  the  extremity  of  their 
abdomen.      They  are  called  by  different  names  in  allusion  to  their 


430  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

habits ;  as,  for  instance,  case-worms,  from  their  living  in  a  case 
covered  with  little  bits  of  wood  or  sand,  which  they  draw  after 
them  as  they  go.  Their  scientific  name,  Phryganea,  signifies 
fagot*  The  Phryganece,  in  the  adult  state,  very  much  resemble 
moths.  They  approach  them  in  having  rudimentary  mouths,  and 
wings  without  articulations,  but  furnished  with  small  hairs,  analo- 
gous to  the  scales  of  Lepidoptera.  They  may  be  said  to  form  a 
sort  of  connection  between  the  Lepidoptera  and  Neuroptera.  They 
have  been  called  Mouches  papilionacees,  or  Papilionaceous  flies. 
The  eggs  laid  by  the  female  Phryganea  are  enclosed  in  gelatinous 
capsules,  which  swell  in  the  water  and  attach  themselves  to  stones, 
&c.  The  larva  has  the  appearance  of  a  little  worm  without  feet. 
It  is  soon  hatched,  and  resembles  at  first  a  little  black  line,  and 
may  be  easily  reared  in  an  aquarium.  The  operation  of  making 
the  silky  case  which  it  draws  after  it,  and  which  protects  its  abdo- 
men, may  then  be  observed.  When  it  is  disturbed,  it  retreats 
entirely  within  its  case.  The  interior  is  smooth,  and  lined  with 
mud ;  on  the  exterior  it  is  fortified  with  stones,  &c. 

The  Phryganea  rkombica  (Figs.  414,  415,  416)  furnishes  its 
case  with  bits  of  wood  or  grass,  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig.  417. 
Some  species  arrange  these  bits  of  wood  and  grass  in  spiral,  others 
in  parallel  series.  The  Phryganea  flamcornis  covers  its  dwelling 
with  little  shells.  "These  kinds  of  dress,"  says  Reaumur,  "are 
very  pretty,  but  they  are  also  excessively  singular.  A  savage 

who,  instead  of  being  covered  with 
furs,  should  be  covered  with  musk  rats, 
moles,  or  other  entire  animals,  would 
have  on  an  extraordinary  costume ; 
this  is  in  some  sort  the  case  with  our 
larvae."  Other  Phryganece  employ  for 
constructing  the  case  which  serves 
them  as  a  dwelling,  sand  and  small 

Fig.  417. — Regular  cases  of  a  Phryganea.        ,  ,  -,  ,  , 

pebbles  ;  each  species  always  employ- 
ing the  same  materials,  unless  they  are  entirely  deprived  of 
these  and  obliged  to  employ  others.  These  cases  protect  the 
larvae  against  the  voracity  of  their  enemies.  The  larvae  have  a 
scaly  head ;  and  the  three  first  rings  of  their  body  are  harder  than 

*  From  (bpvyaviov,  a  stick. — ED» 


NEUEOPTEBA. 


431 


the  rest.  They  live  in  water,  and  breathe  by  means  of  branchious 
sacs,  arranged  on  the  abdomen  in  soft  and  flexible  tufts.  They  eat 
everything  that  is  presented  to  them :  leaves,  and  even  insects, 
and  the  larvae  of  their  own  kind.  The  pupae  are  motionless.  They 
stay  about  a  fortnight  in  their  case,  whose  orifice  is  closed  by 


Fig.  418. — Pupa  of  Phryganea 
pilosa,  magnified. 


Fig.  419. — Phryganea  pilosa. 


gratings  of  silk,  then  break  through  the  gratings  and  leave  their 
prison.  In  this  state  (Fig.  418)  they  swim  on  the  water  until  they 
meet  with  an  object  to  which  they  can  attach  themselves,  and  so 
get  out.  Then  they  swell  till  they  crack  their  skin  over  the  back, 
when  the  perfect  insect  emerges. 

The  Phryganea  pilosa  (Fig.  419)  is  of  a  yellowish  grey,  with 
hairy  wings,  little  adapted  for  flying.  These  insects  do  not  eat, 
and  never  leave  the  neighbourhood  of  the  water.  During  the  day, 
they  rest  on  flowers,  on  walls,  or  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  their 
wings  folded  back,  and  their  antennae  together.  In  the  evening 
they  fly  in  dense  swarms  over  streams  and  ponds.  They  are 
attracted  by  light,  as  are  many  nocturnal  insects ;  and  are  some- 
times found  in  great  numbers  on  the  lamps  on  the  quays  in 
Paris. 


432  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

The  Hydropsyches  (Fig.  420)   and  Rhyacophili  (Fig.  421)  are 


Fig.  420.— Hydropsyche  (Phryganea)  atomaria,  larva,  pupa,  imago,  and  larva-ease. 

small  insects  which  resemble  the  Phryganece  very  closely.     Their 


I 


Fig.  421.— Ehyacophilus  vulgatus,  arva,  pupa,  cocoon,  and  imago  (male). 

larvae  have,  for  the  purposes  of  respiration,  some  gills,  others  re- 


NEUEOPTEEA.  433 

tractile  tubes.  They  construct  for  themselves  fixed  places  of  shelter, 
more  or  less  imperfect,  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  against  large 
stones,  which  they  leave  occasionally  for  a  few  moments.  Some- 
times these  cases  contain  many  larvae  at  the  same  time.  Fig.  420 
represents  the  various  states  of  a  Hy dropsy che ;  the  larva  is  seen 
on  the  left,  the  pupa  on  the  right,  the  winged  insect  in  the  middle. 
Two  of  the  insect's  tents  or  places  of  shelter  are  represented  below. 
Fig.  421  shows  the  different  states  of  Rhyacophilus  vulgatus,  larva, 
cocoon,  pupa,  and  imago.  The  genus  Rhyacophilus  has  this  pecu- 
liarity, that  the  larva  spins  itself  a  cocoon  in  the  interior  of  its 
dwelling,  before  changing  into  a  pupa. 


F  F 


VIII. 
STREPSIPTEKA. 

THIS  is  the  most  anomalous  of  all  the  Orders  of  insects,  and  was 
first  constituted,  and  its  characters  given  by  Kirby,*  although 
Rossi  was  in  truth  the  first  discoverer.  The  species  with  which  . 
the  latter  first  became  acquainted,  called  after  him  Xenos  Rossii, 
he  considered  to  belong  to  the  Hymenoptera,  to  which  these  insects 
do  bear  affinities,  and  placed  it  next  to  the  Ichneumon  on  account 
of  its  parasitical  habits.  In  the  larva  state,  all  the  known  species 
of  the  Order  inhabit  the  bodies  of  Hymenopterous  insects  of  the 
genera  Andrena,  Polistes,  &c.,  in  this  particular  resembling  the 
Dipterous  genus  Conops,  which  inhabits  the  body  of  a  bee,f  and 
apparently  in  no  way  inconveniencing  their  victims  ;  a  fact  which 
has  been  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  their  existence  in 
the  larva  state  is  but  short,  and  that  their  attacks  being  directed 
against  the  abdomen  and  not  the  thorax,  the  seat  of  life  in  insects, 
their  presence  does  not  affect  the  activity  of  the  victim.  The  larva 
has  a  soft  fusiform  body,  surmounted  by  a  somewhat  globose  head. 
"While  feeding,  the  head  is  towards  the  base  of  the  abdomen ;  but 
on  changing  to  a  pupa,  this  position  is  reversed,  and  the  head — 
at  first  of  light  brown,  but  which  after  a  short  time  becomes 
black — thrust  out  between  the  plates  of  the  abdomen. 

The  images,  which  are  of  small  size,  namely,  about  the  eighth 
of  an  inch  long,  are  found  during  August  and  September.  They 
have  four  wings,  but  the  anterior  pair  of  hard  texture,  somewhat 
resembling  elytra,  but  hardly  answering  to  them  in  structure, 
are  very  poorly  developed,  and  curled  round  the  front  pair  of  legs  ; 

*  On  a  new  Order  of  Insects,  "  Linn.  Trans., "vol.  xi.  f  See  page  68. 


STEEPSIPTEEA.  435 

hence  the  name  bestowed  by  Kirby,  from  o-rpe^o-is,  a  twisting,  and 
TTT€p6v,  a  wing ;  the  posterior  wings  are  fully  developed,  and  fold 
up  like  a  fan,  whence  the  Order  received  the  name  of  Rhipiptera 
from  Latreille.  The  eyes,  the  facettes  of  which  are  few  in  num- 
ber, are  placed  on  a  foot- stalk,  whence  the  name  of  the  genus 
Stylops.  The  parts  of  the  mouth  connect  the  Strepsiptera  with 
the  mandibulated  insects,  although  by  some  supposed  to  bear 
analogy  by  their  functions  to  those  parts  in  the  Diptera.  The 
male  only  is  winged,  the  female  resembling  the  larva. 

The  Order  consists  of  one  family,  the  Stylopidte,  divided  into 
four  genera,  of  which  two  only,  Xenos  and  Stylops,  were  described 
by  Kirby  in  the  essay  referred  to  above.  First,  Xenos,  from 
£w>s,  a  guest,  the  most  prolific  in  species, 
of  which  Xenos  Rossii,  sometimes  called  ves- 
parum,  may  be  taken  as  the  type.  Secondly, 
Elenchus,  of  which  Elenchus  Walkeri  is  the 
type.  Thirdly,  Stylops  (Fig.  422),  para- 
sitical on  various  species  of  Andrente,  of 

.  Fig.  422.-Styloys 

which  Stylops  Melittce,  having  a  fleshy  abdo-  (magnified). 

men,  and  the  wings  longer  than  the  body,  may  be  considered 
typical :  and  lastly,  Halictophagus,  of  which  only  one  species, 
infesting  Halictus  ceratus*  named  Halictophayus  Curtisii,  is  known 
to  exist. 

These  singular  insects  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
Europe,  America, — where  they  were  discovered  by  Professor  Peck 
almost  simultaneously  with  Mr.  Kir  by 's  discovery  in  this 
country,  and  to  whom  he  sent  specimens  of  a  species  which  has 
received  the  name  of  Xenos  Peckii, — lately  in  New  Zealand,  and 
elsewhere. 

*  Halictus  and  Andrena  are  two  genera  of  Bees. 


F  F2 


IX. 
COLEOPTERA. 

IN  collections  of  insects,  the  Coleoptera  almost  always  occupy 
the  principal  place.  They  are  sought  after  by  collectors  on 
account  of  the  brightness  of  their  colours,  of  the  solidity  of 
their  integuments,  and  the  facility  with  which  they  can  be  pre- 
served. This  circumstance  has  contributed  much  to  give  to  the 
Coleopterous  Order  marked  preponderance  in  the  immense  series 
of  insects.  Many  more  have  been  collected  than  any  one  has 
as  yet  been  enabled  to  describe ;  and  the  collections  are  encum- 
bered with  species  of  which  no  naturalist  has  yet  given  an 
account. 

Admitting  that  the  first-rate  collections  contain  each  about 
twenty-five  thousand  perfectly  distinct  species,  and  that  a  certain 
fraction  of  these  treasures  is  peculiar  to  each  collection,  M.  Blan- 
chard  came  to  the  conclusion  that  we  must  estimate  the  number 
at  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  of  the  species  of  Coleoptera 
which  would  be  obtained  if  the  different  entomological  collections 
of  France,  England,  and  Germany  were  put  together.  But  every 
day  we  see  arriving  from  different  regions  of  the  globe  new 
riches,  hardly  dreamt  of  up  to  that  time  ;  and  it  is  not  only 
the  small  species,  but  the  larger  and  more  beautiful  also, 
which  furnish  their  contingent.  It  may,  then,  be  believed  that, 
if  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth  were  carefully  explored,  we 
should  obtain  an  incalculable  number  of  Coleoptera,  having 
sufficient  characteristics  to  constitute  distinct  species  or  kinds. 

The  Coleoptera  (from  KoXeoe,  a  sheath,  and  Trrcpo^,  a  wing)  are 
insects  with  four  wings.  The  anterior  wings,  or  elytra,  are  not  used 


COLEOPTEEA.  437 

in  flying ;  they  are  sheaths  more  or  less  hard,  sometimes  varied 
with  bright  colours,  and  never  crossing  over  each  other.  The  pos- 
terior wings  are  membranous,  presenting  a  ramification  of  veins, 
and  folding  up  under  the  elytra,  which  protect  them  when  at  rest. 
The  mouth  of  Coleopters  is  provided  with  mandibles,  with  jaws,  and 
two  quite  distinct  lips,  and  is  suited  for  mastication.  They  undergo 
complete  metamorphosis.  After  an  existence  of  greater  or  less 
extent  in  the  larva  state  (in  the  case  of  the  Cockchafer  three 
years),  the  insect  changes  into  a  pupa,  which  remains  in  a 
state  of  complete  immobilitjr.  After  a  certain  time,  the  pupa 
bursts  its  envelope  and  assumes  the  form  of  a  perfect  insect. 
The  Coleoptera  present  the  utmost  variety  of  habits,  as  regards 
their  habitations  and  food.  One  does  not  find  in  this  Order 
those  admirable  instincts,  those  manifestations  of  intelligence, 
which  bring  certain  Hymenoptera  near  to  those  beings  which 
are  highest  in  the  animal  scale  ;  but  they  offer  peculiarities  very 
well  deserving  serious  and  profound  study.  Some  are  carnivo- 
rous, and  thus  they  are  useful  to  man  in  destroying  other  noxious 
insects,  which  they  seek  on  the  ground,  on  low  plants,  on  trees, 
and  even  in  the  depths  of  the  waters.  Many  of  these  Coleoptera 
feed  on  animal  matter  in  a  state  of  putrefaction.  We  may  look 
on  them  as  useful  auxiliaries  :  they  are  Nature's  undertakers. 

A  great  number  live  in  the  excrements  of  animals.  The 
dung  of  oxen,  buffaloes,  and  camels  afford  shelter  to  Coleoptera 
of  different  families,  which  live  also  on  vegetable  matter  more 
or  less  animalised.  Others  attack  skins  and  dried  animals  in 
general ;  and  some  are  the  pest  of  entomological  collections.  Lastly, 
immense  legions  of  Coleoptera  are  phytophagous ;  that  is  to 
say,  they  attack  roots,  bark,  wood,  leaves,  and  fruits,  and  cause 
much  annoyance  to  the  agriculturist.  Above  all,  the  larvae  are  to 
be  dreaded.  Those  which  live  in  wood  may  in  a  few  years 
occasion  the  loss  of  trees,  vigorous  and  full  of  life ;  or  completely 
destroy  the  beams  of  a  building.  Certain  larvse,  such  as  those  of 
the  cockchafer,  eat  away  the  roots  of  vegetables,  and  so  destroy 
the  harvests.  Others,  lastly,  devour  the  leaves  and  the  stalks  of 
plants,  attack  the  flowers  in  the  gardens,  or  the  corn  in  the  barns ; 
and  so  man  makes  desperate  war  against  them. 

In  the  immense  variety  of  known  Coleoptera  we  must  be  con- 


438  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

tented  to  choose  those  types  which  are  most  prominent  and  most 
characteristic.  We  will  begin  with  the  Scarab&ides,  with  their 
heavy  compact  body,  and  short  antennae,  terminated  by  a  foliaceous 
club.  It  is  to  this  tribe  that  belongs  the  beautiful  Eose  beetle 
(Cetonia  aurata),  which  lives  on  roses ;  the  Cockchafer  (Melontha 
vulgaris),  the  Scarabceus  of  the  Egyptians,  &c. 
••  This  is  the  most  interesting  tribe  of  the  whole  Order  Coleoptera. 
It  corresponds  with  the  great  division  of  the  Lamellicornes  of 
Latreille.  This  name  of  Lamellicornes  was  intended  to  remind  us 
of  the  arrangement  into  laminae,  more  or  less  close  together,  of  the 
club  of  the  antennae  of  these  insects.  Many  Scarabcei  have  their 
mandibles  membranous,  or  at  least  partially  so,  and  always  small. 
This  peculiarity  corresponds  to  their  habits.  Never,  indeed,  do 
they  have  to  triturate  hard  bodies ;  they  all  feed  either  on  flowers, 
on  leaves,  or  on  stercoraceous  matter.  Their  larvae  resemble  each 
other  much,  even  those  of  families  very  widely  differing  from  each 
other  in  the  perfect  state.  They  are  large,  whitish  worms,  with 
diaphanous  skins,  scaly  heads,  furnished  with  indented  mandibles, 
living  in  the  ground  or  in  rotten  wood.  The  pupse  are  fat  and 
stumpy,  and  they  already  show  the  features  of  the  perfect  insect. 
They  make  a  chamber  in  which  to  undergo  their  changes.  They 
remain  generally  three  years  in  the  larva  state.  The  duration  of 
the  pupa  is  very  short,  as  also  is  that  of  the  perfect  insect.  The 
differences  of  the  sexes  are  often  very  marked  on  the  exterior,  by 
protuberances,  horns,  &c.,  which  constitute  the  distinctive  orna- 
ment of  the  males. 

In  the  group  of  Scarabceides  we  shall  have  to  speak,  above  all, 
of  the  Cetoniides,  the  Chafers,  and  the  Scarabcei  properly  so  called. 
The  family  of  Cetoniides  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable,  on  account 
of  the  beauty  of  the  insects  which  compose  it  and  of  the  richness 
of  their  metallic  lustre,  some  being  of  great  splendour,  and  others 
having  velvety  tints.  The  larvae  live  in  wood  in  a  state  of  decom- 
position, the  perfect  insects  frequent  flowers  and  like  the  sun. 

This  family  contains  a  great  number  of  species,  the  type  of 
which  is  the  Eose  beetle  (Cetonia  aurata),  of  a  beautiful  green 
colour  shot  with  gold,  with  transverse  whitish  lines.  The  Eose 
beetle  frequents  roses  especially,  of  which  it  eats  the  petals 
and  the  stamens.  It  is  the  Golden  Melolontha  of  Aristotle, 


COLEOPTEEA. 


439 


who  tells  us  that  this  unfortunate  insect  shared  with  the  Cockchafer 
the  privilege  of  amusing  children.  The  Cetonia  flies  by  day  and 
by  night,  making  use  of  its  inferior  wings  without  opening  the 
elytra  (Fig.  423).  When  seized,  it  pours  out  from  the  extremity 
of  its  abdomen  a  foetid  liquid,  the  only  means  of  defence  the  poor 


Fig.  423.  •  Eosebeetle  (Cetonii  aurata). 


insect  possesses.  The  larva  (Fig.  424)  much  resembles  the  larva 
of  the  Cockchafers,  but  the  legs  are  shorter.  It  is  found  in  rotten 
wood,  and  often  in  ants'  nests.  When  it  has  acquired  its  full 
development  it  makes  a  shell  of  an  oval  form  (Fig.  424),  in  which 


Fig.  424. — Larva  and  cocoon  of  the  Rose  beetle. 

it  transforms  itself  into  a  pupa ;  the  shell  is  composed  of  bits 
of  wood  agglomerated  with  a  silky  matter  which  the  larva 
secretes. 

The  larva  of  the  Cetonia  splendidula,  which  is  the  most  magnifi- 
cent found  in  France,  is  met  with  sometimes  in  the  nests  of  wild 
bees.  In  Russia  the  Rose  beetle  is  considered  a  very  emcacious 
remedy  for  hydrophobia.  In  the  governorship  of  Saratow,  which  tra- 
verses the  Yolga,  hydrophobia  is  very  frequent  on  account  of  the 
heats  which  reign  during  the  whole  summer  in  its  arid  steppes. 
The  inhabitants,  incessantly  exposed  to  be  bitten  by  mad  dogs,  have 


440  THE  INSECT  WOULD. 

tried  in  succession  a  great  many  preparations  to  remedy  the  results 
of  these  terrible  accidents.  It  appears  that  the  Cetonia,  dried  and 
reduced  to  powder,  has  produced  on  many  occasions  good  effects. 
This  is  the  recipe  which  an  inhabitant  of  Saratow  published  in  a 
Russian  journal — adding,  that  he  had  employed  it  for  thirty  years, 
that  not  one  of  the  patients  treated  by  him  had  died,  and  that  his 
remedy  could  be  employed  with  success  in  all  the  phases  of  the 
disease.  In  spring  they  search  at  the  bottom  of  the  nests  of  the 
Red  ant  for  certain  white  larvae,  which  they  carefully  preserve  in 
a  pot,  together  with  the  earth  in  which  they  were  found,  till  the 
moment  of  their  metamorphosis,  which  takes  place  in  the  month  of 
May.  The  insect,  which  is  the  common  Rose  beetle,  is  killed, 
dried,  and  kept  in  pots  hermetically  sealed,  so  that  it  may  preserve 
the  strong  odour  which  it  exhales  in  spring,  which  seems  to  be  a 
necessary  condition  of  the  remedy  proving  efficient.  When  a  case 
of  hydrophobia  presents  itself,  they  reduce  to  powder  some  of  these, 
and  spread  this  powder  on  a  piece  of  bread-and-butter,  and  make 
the  patient  eat  it.  Every  part  of  the  insect  must  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  this  powder,  which,  for  this  reason,  cannot  be  very 
fine.  During  the  whole  time  a  patient  is  under  treatment  he  must 
avoid  drinking  as  much  as  possible,  or  if  his  thirst  is  very  great, 
he  must  only  drink  a  little  pure  water ;  but  he  may  eat.  Generally, 
this  remedy  produces  sleep,  which  may  last  for  thirty-six  hours, 
and  which  must  not  be  disturbed.  When  the  patient  wakes  he  is, 
they  say,  cured.  The  bite  must  be  treated  locally  with  the  usual 
surgical  appliances. 

As  to  the  dose  of  the  remedy,  that  depends  on  the  age  of  the 
patient  and  the  development  of  the  disease.  They  give,  to  an 
adult,  immediately  after  the  bite,  from  two  to  three  beetles ;  to  a 
child,  from  one  to  two  ;  to  a  person  in  whom  the  disease  has 
already  declared  itself,  from  four  to  five.  Given  to  a  person  in 
good  health  the  remedy,  however,  would  not  be  the  least  dangerous. 
In  cases  in  which  the  symptoms  of  hydrophobia  show  themselves 
some  days  after  the  employment  of  the  remedy,  they  recommence 
the  treatment.  They  have  also  tried  to  prepare  this  remedy  with 
insects  collected,  not  in  their  larva  but  in  the  imago  state,  by 
catching  them  on  flowers,  and  it  seems  that  these  attempts  have 
succeeded.  According  to  M.  Bogdanoff,  in  many  governorships 


COLEOPTEEA.  441 

of  the  south  of  Russia  the  lovers  of  sporting  are  in  the  habit  of 
making  their  dogs,  from  time  to  time,  swallow  (as  a  preservative) 
half  of  a  Cetonia  with  bread  or  a  little  wine.  Every  one  in  those 
countries  is  persuaded  of  the  efficacy  of  this  means  for  stopping 
the  development  of  the  disease.  One  ought  not,  perhaps,  to 
reject  a  belief  so  widespread  and  deeply  rooted  without  some  ex- 
periments to  guarantee  us  in  doing  so,  for  medicine  does  not  yet 
possess  any  remedy  against  hydrophobia.  It  might  not  then  be 
useless  to  try  this. 

Two  smaller  species  than  the  Rose  beetle,  the  Cetonia  punctulata 
and  the  Cetonia  pubescens,  which  has  yellowish  hairs,  live  on  the 
flowers  of  thistles.  Western  Africa,  the  Cape,  Madagascar,  &c., 
are  very  rich  in  species  of  Cetoni<z.  Among 
the  Cetoniides  is  the  genus  Goliathus,  gigantic 
insects  which  inhabit  Africa  and  the  East 
Indies.  Their  total  length  sometimes  attains 
from  three  to  five  inches.  Their  colours 
are  generally  a  dull  white  or  yellow,  which 
has  nothing  metallic  about  it,  with  spots  of  a 
velvety  black ;  these  are  due  to  a  sort  of  down 
of  an  extreme  thinness,  and  which  very  easily 
comes  off.  The  head  of  these  enormous  Coleop- 
tera  is  generally  cut  or  scooped  out,  and  is  Fig.  425.— Cetonia  argentea. 
adorned  sometimes  with  one  or  two  horns.  Their  legs,  strong  and 
robust,  are  armed  with  spurs,  and  present  on  their  exterior  sharp 
indentations,  which  give  to  these  insects  a  crabbed  physiognomy, 
which  their  inoffensive  habits  are  far  from  justifying.  All  these 
horns,  and  all  these  teeth  which  look  so  terrible,  are  nothing  in 
fact,  with  a  great  number  of  these  insects,  but  simple  ornaments. 
They  compose  the  picturesque  uniform  of  the  males.  It  is  equi- 
valent to  the  bear- skin  caps,  the  flaming  helmets,  and  the  bullion 
fringed  epaulettes  of  our  soldiers.  The  dress  of  the  female 
Goliathus  is  much  more  modest,  as  is  becoming  to  the  sex.  We 
here  represent  the  Goliathus  Derbyana  (Fig.  426)  and  Polyphemus 
(Fig.  427.) 

The  Gfoliaths  were  formerly  excessively  rare  in  collections,  and 
of  a  price  inaccessible  to  ordinary  amateurs — one  single  specimen 
costing  as  much  as  twenty  pounds.  But  for  some  time  the 


442 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


Goliaths  of  the  coast  of  Guinea  and  of  Cape  Palmas  have  been  sold 
to  European  amateurs  at  a  modest  price,  thanks  to  those  travellers 


Fig.  428. — Goliathus  Derbyana. 


Fig.  427.— Goliathus  Polyphemus. 


who,  after  the  example  of  Dr.  Savage,  have  collected  them  by 
hundreds  in  the  countries  which  produce  them.  These  enormous 
Coleoptera  are  seen  on  the  coast  of  Guinea  fluttering  about  at 
the  top  of  trees,  whose  flowers  they  are  seeking  after.  To  catch 
them,  the  trees  are  felled,  or  else  they  are  shot  at  with  a  gun 
loaded  with  sand,  as  is  also  done  for  the  humming-birds.  The 
species  which  Dr.  Savage  made  common,  is  the  Goliathus  cacicus, 
of  which  we  represent  the  male  and  female  (Figs.  428,  429) .  It 
is  met  with  on  the  coast  of  Guinea.  The  Goliathus  Druryi  (Fig. 
430)  inhabits  Sierra  Leone,  on  the  west  coast  of  Guinea.  The 
numerous  expeditions  which  are  at  the  present  moment  being  made 
into  the  interior  of  Africa  will  not  fail  to  increase  the  number  of 
species  of  these  splendid  insects,  which  are  the  ornament  of  all 
collections. 


COLEOPTEEA.  443 

The  group  of  the  Trichides,  which  has  in  this  country  and  in 
France  a  few  representatives,  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Cetonitdes.  The  Trichides  have  the  elytra  shorter,  the  abdo- 
men bigger,  and  the  legs  more  slender.  The  Trichius  fasciatus, 


Fig.  428. — Goliathus  cacicus,  male. 


which  is  black,  and  covered  with  an  ashy  down,  with  the  elytra 
yellow,  and  with  three  black  bands,  is  to  be  met  with  in  quantities 
on  the  garden  rose-tree,  in  the  months  of  June  and  July.  The 


444  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

larvae  live  in  the  interior  of  old  beams  of  wood,  respecting  their 
surfaces.  In  a  garden,  at  a  few  leagues  from  Paris,  a  little  wooden 
bridge  had  been  built.  It  seemed  on  the  outside  to  be  in  a  perfect 
state  of  preservation.  Nothing  on  the  exterior  would  have  led  one 


Fig.  429. — Goliathus  cacicus,  female. 


to  think  it  was  possible  for  the  oak  timber  which  composed  it  to 
break  down.  A  good  many  of  them,  however,  broke  suddenly.  It 
was  then  seen  that  the  wood  had  been  scooped  out  right  up  to 
the  surface,  which  was  nothing  better  than  a  thin  sheet,  of  an  ini- 


COLEOPTEEA.  445 

perceptible  thinness.     All  the  interior  was  full  of  Trichii,  in  the 
states  of  larva,  pupa,  and  perfect  insect. 


Fig.  430. — Goliathus  Druryi  (natur 

The  Trichius  fasciatus,  sometimes  called  the  Bee  beetle,  is  most 
common  in  the   environs   of  Paris.      Geoffroy  has   described   it 


446  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

under  the  rather  quaint  name  of  the  "  Livree  d'Ancre,"  because 
the  Marquis  of  Ancre  made  his  servants  wear  yellow  coats,  bor- 
dered by  braid  alternately  crossed  with  green  and  yellow. 

The  Osmoderma  eremita  is  a  large  insect,  of  purple  colour, 
formerly  common  in  the  environs  of  Paris,  and  which,  now-a- 
days,  cannot  be  found  nearer  than  Fontainbleau.  One  must 
look  for  them  in  earth  which  fills  up  the  cavity  of  old  willows 
or  of  pear-trees.  The  smell  of  Russia  leather  or  of  plum  which  it 
exhales  has  caused  it  to  be  called,  in  some  places,  the  Plum- 
tree  beetle. 

The  Gnorimus  nobilis  much  resembles  the  Rose  beetle,  and  is 
found  on  elder  flowers,  whose  whiteness  this  golden  insect  relieves. 
One  species,  much  smaller,  only  one  or  two  lines  long,  is  the 
Valgus  hemipterus,  which  one  often  meets  with  in  spring,  in  the 
dust  of  the  roads.  The  female  has  a  long  auger,  which  enables  it 
to  deposit  its  eggs  in  rotten  wood.  Dumeril  has  described  at 
length  the  singular  movements  of  this  little  insect: — The  jerking 
and,  as  it  were,  convulsive  movements  by  which  it  transports  itself 
from  one  place  to  another  ;  its  tottering  attitude,  resulting  from 
the  excessive  length  of  its  hind  legs ;  the  vertical  carriage  of 
these,  which  by  their  singular  direction,  interfere  much  less  with 
the  walking,  which  is  directed  by  the  other  legSi  One  should,  above 
all,  notice  the  artifice  which  the  Valgus  employs,  as  indeed  do 
many  Coleoptera,  to  escape  from  his  persecutors,  by  counterfeiting 
death.  As  soon  as  it  is  seized  by  any  enemy,  its  members  stiffen 
and  become  motionless.  The  body,  abandoned  to  itself,  lies  un- 
evenly on  whatever  side  it  falls,  for  its  legs  no  longer  bend ;  if 
you  bend  them  over,  they  remain  in  the  inclination  given  to 
them.  Nothing  then  betrays  life  in  this  little  dry  and  slender 
being,  frozen  with  fear,  and  imitating  death,  without  perhaps 
being  aware  itself  of  what  it  is  doing. 

We  must  still  further  mention  here  the  Incas — beautiful  insects 
of  the  same  group,  which  are  met  with  in  South  America,  and 
whose  males  have  an  extraordinary  head.  They  fly  during  the 
day  round  the  great  trees  on  which  they  live.  Fig.  4ol  repre- 
sents the  Inca  clathrata. 

The  most  commonly  known  insect  of  the  family  with  which  we 
are  now  occupied,  is  the  Cockchafer.  The  French  word  for 


COLEOPTEEA.  447 

Cockchafer,  ffanneton,  according  to  M.  Mulsant,  comes  from  the 
Latin,  Alitonus  (which  has  sonorous  wings),  which  first  became 
Halleton.  Linnaeus  gave  them  first  the  name  of  Melolontha, 
which  it  probably  had  among  the  Greeks,  and  which  seems  to  be 
the  case  from  this  passage  in  Aristophanes,  in  his  comedy  of 
"The  Clouds."  "Let  your  spirit  soar,"  says  the  Greek  author, 
"let  it  fly  whither  it  lists,  like  the  Melolontha  tied  with  a 


Fig.  431.— Inca  clathrata. 

thread  by  the  leg."  We  see  that  the  habit  of  martyrizing  cock- 
chafers is  of  very  early  date.  The  Common  Cockchafer  (Fig.  432) 
is  one  of  the  greatest  pests  to  agriculture.  In  its  perfect  state  it 
devours  the  leaves  of  many  trees,  principally  those  of  the  elm. 
And  so  children  call  the  fruit  of  the  elm- tree  by  the  name  of 
"  Pains  d'Hanneton."  But  the  destruction  which  they  occasion 
in  their  perfect  state  is  little  when  compared  with  that  which  is 
caused  by  their  larvae — those  white  grubs  so  dreaded  by  agri- 
culturists. 

Cockchafers  make  their  appearance  from  the  month  of  April, 
if  the  season  is  warm.     But  it  is  in  the  month  of  May  that  they 


448  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

show  themselves  in  great  quantities.  And  so  they  are  called  in 
Germany  Maikafer  (May chafer).  They  are  met  with  also  in 
June.  The  duration  of  their  life  as  a  perfect  insect  is  six  weeks. 
They  fear  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  the  bright  sunshine  ;  so, 
during  the  day,  they  remain  hooked  on  to  the  under  surface 
of  leaves.  It  is  only  early  in  the  morning,  and  at  sunset,  that 


Fig.  432. — Cockchafer  (MeMontha  vulgaris). 

one  sees  the  cockchafers  fluttering  round  the  trees  which  they 
frequent.  They  fly  with  rapidity,  producing  a  monotonous  sound 
by  the  friction  of  their  wings.  But  the  cockchafer  steers  badly 
when  it  flies.  It  knocks  itself  at  each  instant  against  obstacles 
it  meets  with.  It  then  falls  heavily  to  the  ground,  and  becomes 
the  plaything  of  children,  who  are  constantly  on  the  look-out 
for  them.  There  is  a  saying,  "  Etourdi  comme  un  Hanneton." 


COLEOPTEEA.  449 

IVTiat  contributes  still  more  to  render  the  flight  of  these  insects 
heavy  and  sustained  for  only  a  short  time  together,  is  that  they 
are  obliged  to  inflate  themselves  like  balloons  in  order  to  rise 
into  the  air.  It  is  a  peculiarity  which  they  share  with  the  migra- 
tory locust.  Before  taking  its  flight,  the  cockchafer  agitates  its 
wings  for  some  minutes,  and  inflates  its  abdomen  with  air.  The 
French  children,  who  perceive  this  manoauvre,  say  then  that  the 
cockchafer  "  compte  ses  ecus  "  (is  counting  its  money),  and  they 
sing  to  it  this  refrain,  which  has  been  handed  down  for  many 
generations : — 

"  Hanneton,  vole,  vole, 
Va-t'en  a  1'e'cole." 

A  variation  which  we  hear  in  the  western  provinces  of  France 
is  the  following  : — 

"  Barbot,  vole,  vole,  vole, 

Ton  pere  est  a  1'ecole 
Qui  m'a  dit,  si  tu  ne  voles, 

II  te  coupera  la  gorge 
Avec  un  grand  couteau  de  Saint-George." 

During  the  day  the  cockchafers  remain  under  the  leaves  in  a  state 
of  perfect  immobility  ;  for  the  heat  which  gives  activity  to  other 
insects,  seems,  on  the  contrary,  to  stupefy  them,  and  it  is  during  the 
night  only  that  they  devour  the  leaves  of  elms,  poplars,  oaks, 
beech,  birch  trees,  &c.  In  years  when  their  number  is  not 
very  great,  one  hardly  perceives  the  damage  done  by  them ;  but 
at  certain  periods  they  appear  in  innumerable  legions,  and  then 
whole  parts  of  gardens  or  woods  are  stripped  of  their  verdure, 
and  present,  in  the  middle  of  the  summer,  the  appearance  of  a 
winter  landscape.  The  trees  thus  stripped  do  not  in  general  die  ; 
but  they  recover  their  former  vigour  with  difficulty,  and,  in  the 
case  of  orchard  trees,  remain  one  or  two  years  without  bearing 
fruit.  It  is  principally  the  trees  skirting  woods,  and  situated 
along  cultivated  fields,  which  are  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the 
cockchafer,  because  the  larvae  of  these  insects  are  developed  in  the 
fields.  In  the  interior  of  forests  they  are  never  met  with  in  great 
numbers. 

In  certain  years  cockchafers  multiply  in  such  a  frightful  manner 
that  they  devastate  the  whole  vegetation  of  a  country.  In  the 

G  G 


450  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

environs  of  Blois  fourteen  thousand  cockchafers  were  picked  up  by 
children  in  a  few  days.  At  Fontainebleau  they  could  have  gathered 
as  many  in  a  certain  year  in  as  many  hours.  Sometimes  they 
congregate  in  swarms  like  locusts,  and  migrate  from  one 
locality  to  another,  when  they  lay  waste  everything.  To  present 
an  idea  of  the  prodigous  extent  to  which  cockchafers  increase 
under  certain  circumstances,  we  will  give  a  few  statistics : — 
In  1574,  these  insects  were  so  abundant  in  England  that  they 
stopped  many  mills  on  the  Severn.  In  1688,  in  the  county  of 
Galway,  in  Ireland,  they  formed  such  a  black  cloud  that  the  sky 
was  darkened  for  the  distance  of  a  league,  and  the  country  people 
had  great  difficulty  in  making  their  hay  in  the  places  where  they 
alighted.  They  destroyed  the  whole  of  the  vegetation  in  such  a 
way  that  the  landscape  assumed  the  desolate  appearance  of  winter. 
Their  voracious  jaws  made  a  noise  which  may  be  compared  to 
that  produced  by  the  sawing  of  a  large  piece  of  wood;  and  in 
the  evening  the  buzzing  of  their  wings  resembled  the  distant 
rolling  of  drums.  The  unfortunate  Irish  were  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  cooking  their  invaders,  and  for  the  want  of  any  other 
food,  of  eating  them.  In  1804,  immense  swarms  of  cockchafers, 
precipitated  by  a  violent  wind  into  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  formed  on 
the  shore  a  thick  bank  of  bodies  heaped  up  one  on  the  other, 
the  putrid  exhalations  from  which  poisoned  the  atmosphere.  On 
May  18,  1832,  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening,  a  legion  of  cock- 
chafers assailed  a  diligence  on  the  road  from  Gournay  to  Gisors, 
just  as  it  was  leaving  the  village  of  Talmontiers,  the  horses, 
blinded  and  terrified,  refused  to  advance,  and  the  driver  was 
obliged  to  return  as  far  as  the  village,  to  wait  till  this  new  sort 
of  hail- storm  was  over.  M.  Mulsant,  in  his  "  Monographic  des 
Lamellicornes  de  la  France,"  relates  that  in  May,  1841,  clouds 
of  cockchafers  traversed  the  Saone,  from  the  south-east  in  the 
direction  of  the  north-west,  and  settled  in  the  vineyards  of  the 
Maconnais.  The  streets  of  the  town  of  Macon  were  so  full  of 
them  that  they  were  shovelled  up  with  spades.  At  certain  hours, 
one  could  not  pass  over  the  bridge  unless  one  whirled  a  stick 
rapidly  round  and  round,  to  protect  oneself  against  their  touch. 

The   coupling   takes   place    towards    the    end   of    May,    after 
which    the    males  die;    the    females    only    surviving  them    for 


COLEOPTEEA. 


451 


the  time  necessary  to  ensure  the  propagation  of  the  species. 
The  number  of  eggs  which  a  female  lays  is  from  twenty  to 
thirty.  With  her  front  legs  she  hollows  out  a  hole  in  the  ground 
from  two  to  four  inches  in  depth,  and  deposits  her  eggs,  of 
a  yellowish  white  and  of  the  size  of  hemp-seed,  therein.  Her 
instinct  leads  her  to  choose  soft,  light,  and  well-manured  soils, 
which  are,  at  the  same  time,  the  best  ventilated  and  the  most 
fertile.  We  may  conclude  from  this  that  cultivation  and  labour 
have  made  the  cockchafer  more  common  than  it  was  formerly. 


Fig,  -133.— Larva  of  the  Cockchafer  (Melolontha  vulgaris). 

It  is  the  child  of  civilisation,  the  parasite  of  agriculture. 
In  from  four  to  six  weeks  after  being  laid,  the  little  larvae  are 
hatched  (Fig.  433),  and  immediately  attack  the  roots  of  vege- 
tables. They  have  a  hard  and  horny  head,  and  slender  black  legs, 
longer  than  in  other  species  of  Scarabceides.  Their  body  is  com- 
posed of  a  whitish  pulp  under  a  transparent  skin,  the  head  and 


Fig.  434.— Pupa  of  the  Cockchafer  (Melolontha  vulgaris). 

the  mouth  have  a  reddish  tinge.  The  length  of  their  existence 
in  this  state  is  three,  sometimes  four  years.  From  the  egg  laid 
in  the  month  of  June  is  hatched  a  larva  in  the  month  of  July. 
It  increases  in  size  during  the  last  six  months  of  the  year,  and 

G  G    2 


452  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

continues  to  do  so  during  the  two  following  years,  changing  its 
skin  many  times  during  the  period.  Towards  the  end  of  the  third 
year,  it  changes  into  a  pupa,  after  having  surrounded  itself  with 
a  shell  consolidated  with  a  glutinous  froth  and  some  threads  of  silk. 
The  pupa  (Fig.  434)  is  of  a  pale  russety  yellow,  with  two  little 
points  at  the  extremity  of  its  body ;  the  elytra  and  the  wings, 
lying  down,  cover  the  legs  and  the  antennae. 

Towards  the  end  of  October  the  perfect  insect  is  already  marked 
out,  but  it  is  still  soft  and  weak.  It  passes  the  winter  in  its 
hiding-place,  hardens  and  becomes  coloured  at  the  end  of  the 
(winter,  and  shows  itself  by  degrees  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
In  the  month  of  April,  three  years  after  its  birth,  the  cockchafer 
emerges  from  the  earth,  and  commences  its  attacks  on  the  leaves 
of  trees.  This  long  duration  of  the  development  of  the  insect 
explains  why  we  do  not  see  them  every  year  in  the  same 
number.  When  they  have  once  appeared  in  great  quantities,  it  is 
not  for  three  years  afterwards  that  we  need  expect  to  see  their 
progeny  again  in  proportionate  numbers.  It  is  then  every  three 
years  that  we  have  a  cockchafer  year,  like  1865,  but  in  the  inter- 
mediate years  they  are  never  very  abundant.  For  the  first 
year  the  little  larvae  do  not  eat  much.  They  feed  then  princi- 
pally on  fragments  of  dung,  and  on  vegetable  detritus,  and 
keep  together  in  families.  In  winter  they  bury  themselves 
deeply,  so  as  to  be  secure  against  frost  and  floods.  Next  spring 
the  want  of  a  greater  abundance  of  food  forces  them  to  disperse. 
They  then  make  subterranean  galleries  in  all  directions,  without, 
however,  going  far  from  the  place  where  they  were  hatched. 
They  begin  attacking  the  roots  which  they  find  within  their  reach  ; 
the  damage  they  do  increasing  with  their  size  and  the  strength  of 
their  mandibles.  Among  roots,  they  seem  to  prefer  those  of  the 
strawberry,  and  of  rose  trees ;  but  they  do  not  despise  other  vege- 
tables, and  attack  legumes  and  cereals  as  well  as  bushes  and  plants. 
The  ravages  which  they  occasion  are  sometimes  incalculable ;  market 
gardens  are  sometimes  entirely  devastated.  Fields  of  lucerne  have 
been  seen  partially  destroyed  by  them,  meadows  of  great  extent 
lose  their  pasturage,  oat  fields  die  off  before  they  have  come  to 
maturity,  and  many  of  the  ears  of  corn  fall  before  they  are  cut- 
in  proportion  as  they  increase  in  age  and  in  strength,  especially 


COLEOPTERA.  453 

in  their  last  year,  do  they  attack  also  ligneous  vegetation.  When 
they  have  gnawed  away  the  lateral  roots  of  a  young  tree, 
the  new  shoots  corresponding  to  them  dry  up.  The  larvae  then 
attack  the  principal  root,  and  thus  bring  about  the  death  of  the 
tree.  There  will  be  found  round  the  roots  of  trees  thus  attacked 
immense  numbers  of  these  worms.  M.  Deschiens  relates  that  he 
had  seen  six  hectares  of  acorns,  sown  three  times  in  the  space  of 
five  years  with  a  perfect  result,  entirely  destroyed  as  many  times 
by  the  larva  of  the  cockchafer.  A  nurseryman  of  B our g- la- Heine 
suffered,  in  1854,  from  the  ravages  of  these  terrible  larvae,  losses 
which  he  estimated  at  thirty  thousand  francs.  Others  only  pre- 
served about  a  hundredth  part  of  their  plants.  In  Prussia  they 
destroyed,  in  1835,  a  considerable  nursery  of  trees  in  the  Institut 
Forestier.  In  the  forest  of  Kolbetz  more  than  a  thousand  measures 
of  wild  pines  were  destroyed  in  the  same  way. 

We  shall  not,  then,  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the  thunders  of 
excommunication  were  formerly  launched  at  the  cockchafers,  as 
they  were  also  at  the  caterpillars  and  the  locusts.  We  do  not  know 
whether  this  had  much  impression  upon  them.  In  1479,  the  cock- 
chafers having  occasioned  a  famine  in  the  country,  were  cited 
before  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  of  Lausanne.  The  advocate 
Fribourg,  who  defended  them,  did  not  find,  doubtlessly,  in  the 
resources  of  his  eloquence  arguments  powerful  enough  in  their 
favour  ;  for  the  tribunal,  after  mature  deliberation,  condemned  the 
accused  troop,  and  sentenced  them  to  be  banished  from  the  terri- 
tory. But  it  is  not  enough  to  pass  a  sentence,  there  must  also  be 
the  means  of  putting  it  in  execution ;  and  these  were  wanting  to 
the  tribunal  of  Lausanne.  And  so  the  condemned  cockchafers  con- 
tinued to  live  on  Swiss  land,  without  appearing  mindful  of  the 
condemnation  which  had  been  fulminated  against  them. 

The  larvae  of  the  cockchafer  are  not  easily  destroyed.  They 
successfully  resist  those  scourges  which  one  fancies  must  harm 
them.  Thus  the  inundation  which  devastated  the  banks  of  the 
Saone,  fifteen  years  ago,  had  no  effect  on  them.  The  land  and 
meadows,  which  had  remained  for  from  four  to  five  weeks  under 
water,  were  none  the  more  rid  of  them.  The  only  circum- 
stance which  is  really  hurtful  to  them,  and  to  the  adult  cock- 
chafer, is  late  frost  in  the  months  of  April  and  May.  When 


454  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

these  frosts  come  after  mild  weather,  they  surprise  the  larvae  at 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  kill  them.  Unfortunately,  the  same 
causes  do  harm  to  the  plants  which  have  already  begun  to  spring 
up.  Nature  has  not  then  sufficiently  provided  the  means  of 
destroying  these  mischievous  beings.  One  would  say  that  she 
had  not  foreseen  their  extraordinary  multiplication,  which  has 
been,  we  must  confess,  encouraged  by  agriculture  and  by  the 
cultivation  of  the  land. 

Animals  do  not  contribute  much  towards  limiting  the  number 
of  cockchafers,  although  the  latter  are  not  wanting  in  natural 
enemies.  Among  insects,  it  is  the  large  species  of  Carabus  which 
search  after  the  larvae  as  well  as  the  adult  cockchafers.  The 
Carabus  auratus  attacks  them  with  great  coolness.  M.  Blanchard 
saw  a  carabus  seize  a  cockchafer  in  the  middle  of  the  road, 
open  its  belly  with  its  mandibles,  and  devour  its  intestines. 
The  cockchafer  tossed  about  from  one  side  to  the  other,  and 
even  walked,  while  it  was  undergoing  its  cruel  punishment ;  and 
the  Carabus  followed  it  without  interrupting  its  work.  Some 
reptiles,  many  carnivorous  animals,  s'uch  as  the  shrew-mouse,  pole- 
cats, weazels,  rats,  and  certain  birds,  especially  the  night-birds, 
prey  upon  the  cockchafer  and  its  larva.  Ravens  and  magpies, 
which  one  sees  going  from  clod  to  clod,  make  savage  but  insuffi- 
cient war  against  them.  In  fact,  all  these  animals  together  do 
not  destroy  the  hundredth  part  of  the  cockchafers  which  are  born 
every  year. 

As  an  example  which  will  show  the  extent  of  the  evil,  a 
field  of  29  acres  was  ploughed  up  into  72  furrows.  At  the  first 
ploughing  were  gathered  300  larvae  per  furrow  ;  at  the  second, 
250 ;  at  the  third,  50  more ;  which  amounted  to  600  per  furrow, 
and  to  43,200  in  all.  Man,  who  is  the  victim  of  these  ravages, 
has  been  necessarily  obliged  to  think  of  a  means  of  destroying 
this  enemy.  Many  infallible  means  have  been  proposed,  which 
have,  however,  given  no  result.  Prizes  have  been  offered,  but  the 
evil  has  not  diminished.  Here  are  a  few  of  the  processes  recom- 
mended. 

Immediately  after  the  ploughing,  you  must  turn  into  the  field 
infested  by  the  larvae  a  flock  of  turkeys,  to  whom  it  will  be  a 
great  treat  to  devour  them ;  or  else,  you  must  sow  in  the  field 


COLEOPTEEA.  455 

rape- seed,  very  thickly,  which  you  must  then  bury  by  a  very  deep 
ploughing,  when  it  is  as  high  as  your  hand.  The  colewort,  they 
say,  kills  the  larvae,  while  it  at  the  same  time  manures  the  soil. 
Or  again,  you  must  plough  up  the  land  on  the  approach  of  hard 
frosts,  to  expose  the  worms  to  the  cold.  Lastly,  you  can  water 
the  field  with  oil  of  coal,  or  sprinkle  it  with  ashes  of  boxwood. 
All  these  are  expensive.  The  simplest  means  are  here  the  best. 
It  is  better  to  depend  upon  labour  than  destructive  substances, 
whose  employment  always  presents  inconveniences.  Considering 
the  difficulties  which  oppose  themselves  to  us  in  our  search 
after  larvae,  we  had  better  collect  them  in  their  adult  state 
by  violently  shaking  the  branches  of  the  trees  on  which  they 
doze  during  the  day,  and  then  kill  them  in  some  way  or  other, 
thus  destroying  from  twenty  to  forty  eggs  with  each  female.  A 
general  cockchafer  hunt,  rendered  obligatory  by  a  law,  and 
encouraged  by  prizes,  would  be  the  only  efficacious  means  of 
opposing  a  pest  which  costs  agriculture  many  millions.  This 
means  would  also  be  less  costly  than  the  turning  up  of  the  land 
concealing  the  larvae,  when  it  is  remembered  that  they  prefer 
land  in  full  bearing. 

In  1835,  the  General  Council  of  La  Sarthe  voted  »  sum  of 
20,000  francs  for  a  cockchafer  hunt.  Nearly  six  hundred  thousand 
litres  were  delivered  in,  thanks  to  a  prize  of  three  centimes  per 
litre.  As  a  litre  contains  about  five  hundred  cockchafers,  there  were 
thus  destroyed  about  three  hundred  millions  of  them.  It  is  true 
that  M.  Romieu,  then  Prefect  of  La  Sarthe,  who  was  the  principal 
promoter  of  this  excellent  measure,  became  food  for  the  wit  of  the 
newspapers,  and  was  represented  dressed  like  a  cockchafer  in 
the  Charivari.  Derision  and  ridicule  are  too  often  the  reward  of 
useful  ideas.  In  Switzerland  were  taken,  in  1807,  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  these  insects.  But  these  isolated 
measures  were  useless  in  producing  a  durable  result. 

It  has  been  tried  to  make  use  of  cockchafers  in  industrial  arts. 
According  to  M.  Farkas,  they  have  succeeded,  in  Hungary,  by 
boiling  them  in  water,  in  extracting  from  them  an  oil,  which  is 
used  to  grease  the  wheels  of  carriages  ;  and,  according  to  M.  Mul- 
sant,  the  blackish  liquid  which  is  contained  in  the  ossophagus 
may  be  used  for  painting.  But  the  produce  arising  from  these 


456  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

industrial  occupations  is  not  considerable  enough  to  ensure  them 
a  certain  extension,  which  is  to  be  regretted,  for  agriculture 
would  thus  be  rid  of  one  of  its  most  formidable  scourges.  Poultry 
are  sometimes  fed  on  these  insects ;  pigs  are  also  very  fond  of 
them. 

The  Melolontha  brunnea  differs  from  the  common  species  in 
having  black  legs.  The  Melolontha  fullo,  twice  as  large  as  the 
common  species,  is  variegated  with  tawny  and  white.  It  is  met 
with  on  the  sea- coasts,  and  on  the  downs  of  the  north  and  south 
of  France  ;  as  its  larvae  feed  on  the  roots  of  maritime  plants. 

Among  the  genera  very  near  to  the  cockchafer  we  will  mention 
the  little  Rhizotrogus,  light  coloured  and  hairy,  which  flies  in  the 
evening  in  the  meadows,  and  the  Euchloras  or  Anomalas,  of 
splendid  metallic  colours.  The  Anomala  vitis  is  an  insect  of 
about  half  an  inch  long,  of  a  beautiful  green,  bordered  by  yellow, 
with  the  elytra  deeply  furrowed.  It  sometimes  causes  extensive 
ravages  in  the  vineyards. 

After  the  Cetoniides  and  the  Cockchafers,  we  come  to  the  Scam- 


Fig.  436.— Head  of  Oryctes  nasicornis 
male. 


Fig.  435.— Oryctes  nasicornis,  male.  Fig.  437.— Head  of  Oryctes  nasicornis, 

female. 

bceides  properly  so  called.  The  Oryctes  nasicornis  (Fig.  435)  is 
very  common  all  over  Europe.  It  is  about  an  inch  long,  of  a 
chestnut-brown,  and  perfectly  smooth.  The  male  has  on  the  head 
a  horn,  which  is  wanting  in  the  female  (Fig.  437).  Its  larva, 
which  is  a  great  whitish  worm,  larger  than  that  of  the  cockchafer, 
lives  in  rotten  wood  and  in  the  tan  which  is  employed  in  hot- 
houses and  in  garden-frames.  They  were  to  be  found  by  hundreds 
in  the  old  hothouses  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at  Paris.  The 


COLEOPTEEA.  457 

market- gardeners,  who  employ  the  tannin  of  the  oak  bark,  have 
rendered  this  Coleopteron  very  common  in  the  environs  of  that 
capital.  Fig.  438  represents  an  exotic  species,  the  Oryctes  dicho- 
tomus. 

Among  the  true  Scarabm9  we  meet  with  many  species  of 
gigantic  size,  especially  in  America.  The  Scarabceus  Hercules,  a 
great  insect  of  a  fine  ebony  black,  with  its  elytra  of  an  olive  grey, 


Fig.  438. — Oryctes  dichotomus. 


is  not  rare  in  the  Antilles.  Its  thorax  is  prolonged  into  a  horn  as 
long  as-  its  body,  and  bent  round  at  the  extremity  ;  its  head  has 
also  a  long  horn  standing  erect.  The  females  want  these  append- 
ages. Fig.  439  represents  the  Scarabteus  claviger  of  Guyana. 


Fig.  439.^-Scarabaeus  claviger. 


The  Geotrupes  are  insects  almost  as  common  as  the  chafers,  As 
their  name  reminds  us,  they  make  holes  in  the  ground,  which  they 
scoop  out  particularly  in  meadows,  under  cow*dung  which  has 
grown  dry  on  the  surface.  It  is  under  the  excrements  of  ruminating 


•458 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


animals  and  horses  that  they  must  be  lookecl  for.  They  fly  espe- 
cially at  night,  and  may  be  seen  buzzing  about  on  fine  summer's 
evenings  in  the  vicinity  of  dung  heaps. 

The  Geotrupes  stercoraceous,  the  Shard-born  beetle,  Clock,  or 


Fig.  440.— Scarabsetis  (G-olofa)  Porteri. 

Bumbledor,  is  of  a  brilliant  bluish  black,  and  attains  to  a  length 
of  about  two- thirds  of  an  inch.  We  may  consider  this  Coleopteron 
as  an  useful  auxiliary  of  man,  in  ridding  the  soil  of  excrementious 
matter,  The  genus  Trox,  which  belongs  to  the  same  group, 


COLEOPTEEA.  459 

generally  inhabits  sandy  countries,  and  has  its  body  nearly  always 
covered  with  earth  or  dust ;  it  lives  on  vegetable  substances,  or  on 
animal  matter  in  a  state  of  decomposition.  The  habits  of  the  genus 
Copris  resemble  those  of  Geotrupes  ;  they  live  in  excrement.  The 
form  of  their  hood,  broad,  rounded,  without  indentation,  and 
advancing  over  the  mouth,  suffices  to  distinguish  the  kindred 
species.  In  the  environs  of  Paris  and  in  England  the  Copris 
lunaris  is  found.  The  larvae  of  these  insects  form  a  shell  composed 
of  earth  and  dung,  before  transforming  themselves  into  pupae  ; 
this  shell  is  more  or  less  round,  and  acquires  a  great  hardness. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Ateuckus*  collect  portions  of  excre- 
ment, which  they  make  up  into  balls,  and  roll  till  they  are 
as  perfectly  rounded  as  pills,  and  in  which  they  lay  their  eggs. 
This  habit  has  gained  for  these  insects  the  name  of  pill-makers. 
Their  hind  legs  seem  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  for  this  operation, 
for  they  are  very  long  and  somewhat  distant  from  the  other  legs, 
which  gives  to  the  Ateuchi  a  strange  appearance,  and  makes  it 
hard  work  for  them  to  walk.  They  walk  backwards  and  often  fall 
head  over  heels.  They  are  generally  seen  on  declivities  exposed 
to  the  greatest  heat  of  the  sun,  assembled  together  to  the  number 
of  four  or  five,  occupied  in  rolling  the  same  ball ;  so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  know  which  is  the  real  proprietor  of  this  rolling 
object.  They  seem  not  to  know  themselves ;  for  they  roll  indiffer- 
ently the  first  ball  which  they  meet  with,  or  near  which  they  are 
placed. 

The  Ateuch  are  large  flat  insects,  with  an  indented  head;  they 
all  belong  to  the  Ancient  Continent.  The  type  of  the  genus  is  the 
Ateuchus  sacer  (Fig.  442),  the  Sacred  Scarabgeus  of  the  Egyptians. 
This  insect  is  black,  and  attains  to  a  length  of  a  little  less  than  an 
inch.  It  is  to  be  found  commonly  enough  in  the  south  of  France, 
in  the  whole  of  southern  Europe,  Barbary,  and  Egypt.  The  paint- 
ings and  amulets  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  very  often  represent 
it,  and  sometimes  give  it  a  gigantic  size.  It  is,  doubtless, 
then  this  species  which  was  an  object  of  veneration  with  the 
Egyptians. 

There  exists  another  species  which  is  always  represented  as  of 
a  magnificent  golden  green,  and  to  which  Herodotus  also  attributes 
this  colour.  As  it  was  not  to  be  found  in  Egypt,  it  was  thought 


400  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

for  a  long  while  that  the  Egyptians  had  painted  the  black  species 
of  a  more  splendid  colour  in  order  to  pay  it  homage.  But  in 
1819,  M.  Caillaud  actually  found  at  Meroe,  on  the  banks  of  the 
White  Nile,  the  Ateuchus  Egyptiorum,  which  resembles  the 
Atewchus  sacer  much  in  colour,  but  has  a  golden  tint.  Since  then 
it  has  also  been  brought  from  Sennaar.  The  two  species  were 
both  probably  sacred.  Hor-Apollon,  the  learned  commentator 
on  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  thinks  that  this  people,  in  adopting 
the  scarabajus  as  a  religious  symbol,  wished  to  represent  at  once  : 
an  unique  birth — a  father — the  world — a  man.  The  unique  birth 
means  that  the  scarabgeus  has  no  mother.  A  male  wishing  to 
procreate,  said  the  Egyptians,  takes  the  dung  of  an  ox,  works 


Fig.  441. — Scarabaeus  enema,  or  Enema  infundibulum. 

it  up  into  a  ball,  and  gives  it  the  shape  of  the  world,  rolls  it  with 
its  hind  legs  from  east  to  west,  and  places  it  in  the  ground,  where 
it  remains  twenty-eight  days.  The  twenty-ninth  day  it  throws 
its  ball,  now  open,  into  the  water,  and  there  comes  forth  a  male 
scarabaeus.  This  explanation  shows  also  why  the  scarabaeus  was 
employed  to  represent  at  the  same  time  a  father,  a  man,  and  the 
world.  There  were,  however,  according  to  the  same  author,  three 
sorts  of  Scarabcei:  one  was  in  the  shape  of  a  cat,  and  threw  out 
brightly  shining  rays  (probably  the  Golden  Scarabaeus,  Ateuchus 
Egyptiorum)  ;  the  two  others  had  horns ;  their  description  seems 
to  refer  to  a  Copris  and  a  Geotrupes. 

As  other  remarkable  species  of    Scarabcei   we    represent    the 
Scarabceus  enema  (Fig.  441),  with  strong  horns,  the  Scarabmis 


COLEOPTEEA.  4B1 

.- , 

(Fig.  443),  the  Scarabaus  anubis  (Figs.  4M  and  44$, 
and  the  Scarab&us  Hercules  (Fig.  446). 


The  last   family  of  the   Scarabceides  contains  the   Lucarti,  or 


462  THL:  IXSECT  WOKLD. 

Stag  beetles.     These  Coleoptera  are  of  great  size,  and  their  hotiX 
is   armed   with   enormous   robust  mandibles,  which  give  them  a' 


Fig.  443. — Scarafoajus  chorinseu?. 


ferocious  air,  which  their  inoffensive  habits  do  not  in  any  way 
justify.     They  live  in  half- rotten  trees,   whose  destruction  they 


Fig.  444. — Scarabams  anubis  (male). 

accelerate.  Their  mandibles,  of  such  prodigious  size  only  in  the 
male,  are  of  more  inconvenience  to  them  than  they  are  of  use,  as 
they  impede  their  flight.  Their  strength  enables  them  to  raise 
considerable  weights,  but  they  make  no  other  use  of  them  than  to 
show  their  strength,  which  is  enormous.  They  do  not  attack  other 
insects,  and  live  only  on  vegetable  juicep. 


COLEOPTERA. 


463 


The  common  Stag  beetle  (Figs.  447*  and  448)  attains  to  a  length 
of  two  inches  or  more  including  its  mandibles,  and  is  of  a  dark  brown 


Fig.  445.— Scarabffius  auubis  (female). 


Fig.  446. — Scarabseus  Hercules. 


chestnut  colour.     They  are  met  during  the  months  of  May,  June, 

*  The  figure  may  possibly  mislead,  as  it  shows  the  larva  and  pupa  in  the  ground, 
for  although  recent  observations  show  that  this  species  does  occasionally  undergo 
its  metamorphoses  therein,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  larva  lives  anywhere  but  in 
wood. — ED. 


464 


THE  INSECT  WOULD. 


and  July,  in  large  forests,  climbing  along  trees  and  hooking 
themselves  on  to  the  trunks  by  their  mandibles.  Charles  de  Geer 
says  that  the  Stag  beetle  imbibes  the  honied  liquid  which  is 
found  on  oak  trees,  a  tree  it  particularly  seeks  after,  which  has 
caused  it  to  be  called  in  Swedish  Ek-  Oxe  (Oak  Ox).  It  is  sup- 


posed that  it  eats  the  leaves  also.  It  sometimes  attacks  insects. 
Westwood  says  that  it  has  been  seen  to  descend  from  a  tree 
carrying  a  caterpillar  in  its  mandibles.  Swammerdam  had  one 
which  followed  him  like  a  dog  when  he  offered  it  honey. 


COLEOPTEEA. 


465 


They  only  fly  in  the  evening,  holding  themselves  nearly  straight  so 
as  not  to  see-saw.  Their  larvae — which  are  whitish,  with  russety 
heads,  whose  existence  in  that  state  lasts  nearly  four  years — live  in 
the  interior  of  trees.  Many  naturalists  think  that  the  larva  of  the 
Lucanus  was  the  Cossus  of  the  Romans,  which  figured  on  the 
tables  of  the  rich  patricians,  and  particularly  of  Lucullus. 


Fig.  448.— Stag  Beetle  (Lucanus  cervus).  Fig.  449.— Lucanus  (Homoderus)  Mellyi. 

Fig.  448  represents  the  Stag  beetle  (Lucanus  cervus) ;  Fig.  449, 
an  exotic  species,  the  Lucanus  {Homoderus)  Mellyi,  from  Gabon ; 
Fig.  450,  the  Lucanus  betticosus ;  and  Fig.  451,  another  exotic 
species  from  Coelebes,  Lucanus  Titan. 

The  Syndesus  cornutus  (Fig.  452)  of  Tasmania,  and  the  Ckiasog- 
nathus  Grantii,  from  the  coast  of  Chili  (Fig.  453),  of  a  beautiful 
golden  green,  shot  with  copper,  belong  to  genera  akin  to  Lucanus. 

We  arrive  now  at  the  tribe  of  Silphales,  which  are  still  more 
useful  to  man  than  the  Dung  beetles  (Scarab&ides) ,  since  many  of 
them  disencumber  the  soil  of  the  carcasses  of  animals  in  a  state  of 

H  H 


466 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


putrefaction.     The  most  remarkable  insects  of  this  tribe  are  the 
Histers,  the  Silphas,  properly  so  called,  and  the  Necrophori. 

The  Histers  are  small  insects,  to  be  recognised  by  their  body 
being  almost  round,  smooth  and  shining,  with  the  elytra  marked 


Fig.  450.-  Lucanus  bellicosus. 

with  streaks,  and  their  mandibles  pretty  well  developed.  They 
attain  to  a  length  of  about  a  fifth  of  an  inch.  The  Silpha, 
thus  named  on  account  of  their  broad  and  rounded  form,  are 
of  a  larger  size  (about  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch), 
of  a  dark  colour,  and  exhale  a  sickly  odour.  When  seized 
they  disgorge  a  blackish  liquid.  They  introduce  themselves 
under  the  skin  of  the  carcasses  of  animals,  and  devour  their 
flesh  to  the  very  bone.  The  larvae,  flat  and  indented,  live,  like 
the  adults,  in  carrion.  The  commonest  species  is  the  Silpha 
obscura,  of  an  intense  black,  delicately  dotted.  Two  species  found 


COLEOPTEEA.  467 

in    England    and    in    the    environs    of    Paris,     Silpha     qi:ad-~ 


Fig.  451.— Lucanus  Titan. 

ripunctata  and  the  Silpha  thoracica,  climb  trees  and  attack  cater- 
pillars. It  appears  to  be  certain  that  the 
larva  of  the  Silpha  obscura  does  a  great 
deal  of  damage  to  beetroot,  whose  leaves 
it  devours.  The  Necrodes  come  very  near  to 
the  Silphce.  They  are  distinguished  from 
them  by  having  the  hind  legs  larger.  Only 
one,  Necrodes  littoralis,  occurs  in  England. 
Fig.  459  represents  the  Necrodes  lacrymosa, 
from  Australia. 

The  Necrophori,  or  Grave-diggers,  are  honest  undertakers,  who 

HH2 


Fig.  452.— Syndesus 
cornutus. 


468 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


carefully  bury  carcasses  left  on  the  soil.  As  soon  as  they  smell  a 
field-mouse,  a  mole,  or  a  fish  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  they 
come  by  troops  to  bury  it,  getting  under  the  carcass,  hollow- 
ing out  the  ground  with  their  legs,  and  projecting  the  rubbish 


Fig.  453.— Chiasognatlms  Grantii. 


they  dig  out  in  all  directions.  Little  by  little  the  carcass  sinks ; 
at  the  end  of  twenty- four  hours  it  has  generally  disappeared  into 
a  hole  five  inches  in  depth,  but  the  Necropkori  sink  it  still  lower 
— as  far  as  from  seven  to  ten  inches  below  the  surface.  They 


COLEOPTEBA. 


469 


then  mount  it,  cast  the  earth  down  into  the  grave  so  as  to 
fill  it,  and  the  females  lay  their  eggs  in  the  tomb,  where  the 
larvae  will  find  an  abundance  of  food.  When  the  ground  is  too 
hard  to  be  dug,  the  Necrophori  push  the  carcass  further,  till 


Fig.  454.—  Hister  rugosus. 


Fig.  455.-Silphaquadripunctata. 


Fig,  456.— Silpha 
thoracica. 


they  find  permeable  soil.  A  mole  has  been  run  through  with 
a  stick,  or  else  tied  by  a  string,  to  see  how  the  Necrophori  would 
get  over  the  difficulty.  They  scooped  out  the  soil  underneath 
the  stick,  and  cut  through  the  string,  and  the  mole  was  buried  in 


Fig.  457. — Necrodea  littoralis 
(male). 


Fig.  458.— Necrodes  littoralis 
(female). 


Fig.  459. — Neorodes  lacry- 
mosa. 


spite  of  the  obstacles.     Fig.  460  represents  a  troop  of  Necrophori 
burying  a  small  rat. 

The  Necrophorus  vespillo  (Fig.  461)  is  variegated  with  yellow 
and  black ;  the  Necrophorus  germanicus  (Fig.  462)  is  larger,  quite 
black,  and  rarer.  All  these  insects  exhale  a  disagreeable  musky 
smell.  Their  bodies  are  often  covered  with  parasites,  which 


470  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

are  carried  along  by  them  by  hooking  on   to  their  hairs,  and 


Fig.  460.  -Burying  Beetles  (Necrophorus  vespilto)  interring  the  body  of  a  rat. 

which  make  use  of  the  Necrophorus  as  a  vehicle  in  which  they 
get  their  food. 

The  Staphylmida  live  in  the  carcasses  of  animals,  on  manure 


Fig.  461.— Necrophorus  vespillo.  Fig.  462.— Necrophorus  germanicus. 

detritus,  and  attack  living  insects.     They  are,  for  the  most  part, 


COLEOPTEEA. 


471 


of  small  size,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  elytra,  which  are 
short,  and  resemble  a  waistcoat  or  a  jacket ;  but  their  wings 
are  fully  developed.  The  large  species  have  strong  mandibles. 


Fig.  463. — Staphylinus  (Ocypus,  olens,  imago,  pupa,  and  larva. 

When  irritated,  the  Stapkylini  disgorge  an  acrid  black  liquid; 
and  by  the  abdomen  they  emit  a  volatile  fluid  having  a  musky 
odour. 


Fig.  4(54.  — Staphylinus  (Ocypus)  olens. 

We  see  frequently  on  roads  the  Staphylinus  olens  (Figs.  463  and 
464),  which,  when  it  finds  itself  attacked,  raises  its  abdomen,  and 


472 


THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 


thrusts  out  two  little  whitish  bladders,  which  pour  out  a  volatile 
liquid.  Its  larva  lives  under  stones,  and  its  habits  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  adult  insect.  It  is  very  carnivorous,  and  very  active, 
and  often  attacks  those  of  its  own  kind.  The  Staphylinus  maxillo- 


Figs.  465.— Staphylinus  maxillosus. 


Fig.  466.— Staphylirms  hirtus. 


sus  (Fig.  465)  resembles  at  a  distance  a  humble-bee,  on  account 
of  its  long  yellow  hairs.      The  Staphylinus  hirtus  (Fig.  466)  has 


Fig.  467. — Pselaphus  Heisii  (magnified).  Fig.  468. — Claviger  foveolatus  (magnified). 

black-and-white  hairs.  The  genera  Pselaphus  and  Claviger,  akin 
to  the  above,  contain  little  insects  which  live  as  parasites  in  the 
nests  of  ants.  The  Pselaphus  Heisii  (Fig.  467),  less  than  a  line 
long,  lives  on  the  debris  of  reeds,  on  the  borders  of  marshes. 


COLEOPTEEA. 


473 


The  Claviger  foveolatus  (Fig.  468)  is  met  with  in  the  nest  of  a 
little  russety  ant,  which  takes  as  much  care  of  it  as  of  its  own 
progeny,  because  the  Claviger  secretes  a  liquid  very  much 
appreciated  by  ants,  who  are  continually  occupied  in  licking  its 
back. 

The  Dermestidce  attack  by  preference  the  tendons  and  the 
skins  of  carcasses.  A  few  of  the  insects  of  this  family  are  the 


Fig.  469. — Bacon  Beetle  (Dermestes  lardarius),  magnified  and  natural  size. 

plague  of  our  collections  and  the  furriers.  They  devour  a 
quantity  of  dry  substances — skins,  feathers,  catgut,  hair,  shell- 
work,  the  dried  bodies  of  insects,  &c.  Some  other  Dermestidce  feed 
on  animal  matter  still  fresh :  such  is  the  Bacon  beetle,  Dermestes 
lardarius  (Fig.  469),  which  is  to  be  met  with  in  some  dirty  pork- 
shops.  It  is  black,  with  the  base  of  its  elytra  tawny  and  marked 
with  three  black  spots.  The  larvae  are  covered  with  a  russety 


Fig.  470.— Attagenus  pellio,  magnified  and  natural  size, 

hair;  they  eat  bacon,  skins,  and  also  attack  each  other.  The 
perfect  insect  does  no  damage.  Like  all  the  Dermestidce,  it 
counterfeits  death  when  handled.  The  Dermestes  vulpinus,  of  a 
tawny  grey,  injures  furs,  and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
whose  storehouses  in  London  were  infested  by  this  insect,  offered 
a  reward  of  £20,000  for  a  means  of  destroying  this  insect. 
The  furriers  have  cause  also  to  dread  the  Attagenus  pellio  (Fig.  470), 


474 


THE  INSECT  WOELD. 


whose  larva,  covered  with  yellowish  hairs,  has  at  its  extremity  a 
sort  of  broom,  which  assists  it  in  moving. 

The  Anthrenus  museorum,  the  fifteenth  of  an  inch  in  length, 
black  with  three  grey  bands,  drives  collectors  to  despair,  for  its 
larva  destroys  their  collections.  It  is  covered  with  grey  and 
brownish  hairs,  which  it  bristles  up  the  moment  it  is  touched. 
The  perfect  insect  feeds  on  flowers,  and  counterfeits  <}eath  when 
seized.  All  possible  means  have  been  tried  for  getting  rid  of  the 
Anthrenus  by  placing  in  the  collection  camphor,  benzine,  tobacco, 
sulphur,  &c.,  but  benzine  very  soon  destroys  them. 


Fig.  471. — Hydrophilus  piceus. 

The  HydropMKf  very  different  to  the  group  which  we  shall 
presently  consider,  are  herbivorous,  and  are  to  be  found  on  the 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  The  Hydrophilus  piceus  (Fig.  471),  which 
attains  to  an  inch  in  length,  is  common  in  our  fresh  waters.  It 
must  not  be  seized  without  taking  precautions ;  as  its  thorax  is 
provided  with  a  strong  point,  which  pierces  the  skin.  It  draws 
in  air  by  thrusting  its  antennae  out  of  the  water,  and,  placing  them 
against  its  body,  the  bubbles  of  air,  which  get  involved  in  a  sort 
of  furrow,  slip  under  the  body,  and  fix  themselves  to  the  hairs, 


COLEOPTERA. 


475 


in  such  a  manner  that  the  animal  seems  to  be  clothed  in  pearls.  It 
is  thus  the  air  reaches  the  spiracles.  The  female  of  the  Hydrophilus 
is  sometimes  seen  clinging  to  aquatic  plants,  head  downwards, 
forming  her  cocoon,  terminated  by  a  long  pedicle,  in  which  she 
places  her  eggs,  by  means  of  the  two  bristles  situated  at  the 
extremity  of  the  abdomen  (Fig.  472).  After  having  drawn  this 
after  her  for  some  time,  she  leaves  it  to  itself  in  calm  water.  At 
the  end  of  a  fortnight,  there  come  out  from  it  little  brown  larvae, 
very  active,  which  ascend  the  water  plants.  These  larva)  are  at 
the  same  time  herbivorous  and  carnivorous.  They  live  on  plants 
and  small  molluscs,  which  they  seize  from  underneath,  and  whose 
shell  they  break  by  pressing  them  against  their  back,  to  extract 


Fig.  472. — Bristles  at  the  extremity  of  the 
abdomen  of  the  Hydrophilus. 


Fig.  473.— Pupa  of  the  Hydrophilus. 


from  it  the  animal.  If  attacked,  they  emit  a  black  liquid,  which 
discolours  the  water,  and  enables  them  to  escape.  At  the  end  of 
two  months,  the  larva  comes  out  of  the  water,  and  burrows  into 
the  ground  to  undergo  its  metamorphosis  into  a  pupa  (Fig.  473), 
which  becomes  a  perfect  insect  a  month  afterwards.  The  latter 
gets  its  colour  little  by  little,  and  comes  out  of  the  ground  at  the 
end  of  twelve  days.  According  to  M.  Dumeril,  the  intestine  of 
the  larva  grows  gradually  longer  and  longer,  as  its  diet  becomes 
that  of  herbs,  the  adult  preferring  vegetable  food  to  animal 
matter.  It  is  at  the  end  of  summer  that  the  Hydrophilus  piceus 
becomes  perfect,  and  it  passes  the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpor  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water.  The  females  lay  in  the  month  of  April. 


476  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

A  small  species,  Hydrous  fuscipes,  is  commoner  than  the  large 
one  ;  its  body  is  more  rounded  behind. 

We  are  now  going  to  consider  a  series  of  aquatic  and  carnivorous 
insects ;  the  Dytisci,  Water  beetles,  the  Cy  bisters,  and  iheGyrinidce, 
or  Whirligig  beetles.  These  are  perfect  corsairs,  whose  rapacity 
even  exceeds  that  of  many  of  the  land  Coleoptera.  Not  contented 
with  devouring  one  another,  when  pressed  by  hunger,  with  attack- 
ing especially  the  larvae  of  all  aquatic  insects,  such  as  the  Libel- 
lulce  and  Ephemera,  they  feed  also  on  molluscs,  on  tadpoles,  and 
on  small  fish.  It  is  easy  to  rear  them  in  captivity.  If  confined 
in  a  small  aquarium,  their  habits  would  be  much  more  amusing 
than  a  few  golden  fish,  which  one  meets  with  everywhere,  and 


Fig.  474.— Dytiscus  marginalia,  male  and  female,  and  front  leg  of  male  magnified. 

which  are  only  good  enough  to  amuse  European  Sckaabahams. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  cover  the  aquarium  at  the  top  with  gauze, 
to  prevent  the  perfect  insects  from  escaping.  This  tribe  is  not 
very  numerous,  nor  varied  in  its  forms.  An  oval  body,  legs 
curved  and  widened  into  oars,  provided  with  hairs,  distinguish 
the  insects  which  compose  it.  They  imbibe  air  at  the  surface  of 
the  water,  like  porpoises. 

The  most  carnivorous  of  this  group  are  the  Dytisci  and  the 
Cybisters.  They  may  be  called  the  sharks  of  the  insect  world. 
Nothing  which  lives  in  the  water  is  safe  against  the  voracity  of  the 
Dytiscus.  They  attack  small  molluscs,  young  fish,  tadpoles,  larvae 
of  insects,  and  suck  greedily  the  bits  of  raw  meat  which  are  thrown 


COLEOPTEKA. 


477 


to  them.  They  may  be  kept  in  an  aquarium  for  many  years,  by 
feeding  them  on  animal  matter.  Their  oval-shaped  body,  with  its 
sharp  sides,  permits  them  to  cut  through  the  water  with  great  ease 
— the  hind  legs  serving  as  oars.  They  are  to  be  found  in  stagnant 


Fig.  415. — Pupa  and,  larva  of  Dytiscus  marginalia. 


waters,  during  the  greatest  part  of  the  year,  but  principally  in 
autumn.  During  the  winter  they  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  and 
under  moss.  The  females  lay  their  eggs  in  the  water.  The 
larvse  are  long,  swelling  out  at  the  middle,  furnished  with  hairs, 


Fig.  476. — Dytiscus  latissimus. 


Fig.  477.— Cybister  Kceselii. 


and  grow  rapidly.     To  undergo  their  metamorphosis  into  pupae, 
they  bury  themselves  in  the  earth. 

The  perfect  insects  are  amphibious,  and  fly  from  one  pond  to 
another  to  satisfy  their  voracious  appetites.  The  most  common 
species  of  this  genus  is  the  Dytiscus  marginalis  (Fig.  474),  of  a 


478 


THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 


dark  greenish  brown,  yellowish  on  the  sides.  The  elytra  of  the 
male  are  smooth  :  those  of  the  female  are  fluted.  The  front  leg  of 
the  male  is  provided  with  suckers.  The  larva  is  brown  ;  the  pupa 
of  a  dirty  white. 

The  Dytiscus  marginalia  sometimes  attacks  Hydrophilus  piceus. 
It  pierces  it  between  the  head  and  the  thorax,  that  is,  in  the 
weak  point  of  its  cuirass,  and  devours  it,  in  spite  of  it  being  the 
stronger.  The  largest  of  the  Dytisci,  the  Dytiscus  latissimus, 
(Fig.  476),  is  almost  confined  to  the  north  of  Europe.  The  Cybis- 
ters  abound  especially  in  warm  countries.  The  Cybister  Rceselii 
(Fig.  477),  a  European  species,  has  the  reputation  of  having  been 
taken  in  England.  This  group  contains  also  a  great  number  of 
insects  more  or  less  resembling  the  preceding,  in  their  conforma- 
tion and  habits.  We  will  confine  ourselves  to  representing  a  few 
by  figures  : — • 


Fig.  478.— Aiiliua  sulcatus  ^rnale).  Fig.  479.— Acilins  sulcatus  (female). 


FiR.  430.  Fig.  481. 

Acilius  fasciatus  (male).        Acilius  fasciatus  (female). 


Fig.  482. 
Noterus  crassicornis. 


\w 


479 


Fig  433. — Colymbetes  cinereus.        Fig.  484. — Colymbetus  notati 


y 

Fig.  485. — Colymbetes  stria i  us 


Fig.  436.— Haliplus  fulvus. 


\ 

Fig.  487. — Hydroporus  griseo-striatus. 

\ 


Fig.  488.  Fig.  489.  Fig.  490. 

Hydroporus  confluens.  Saphis  cimicoide.  Laccophilus  variegatus. 


Fig.  491.— Laccophilus  minutus.    Fig.  492.— Hydaticus  grammicus.        Fig.  493.— Hygrobia  Hermann!. 


480  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

The  Gyrinid&y  which  come  very  near  to  the  Dytiscida,  like 
water  which  is  clear  and  a  little  agitated.  They  are  small 
black  insects,  living  in  troops,  and  which  swim  with  rapidity, 
describing  incessantly  capricious  circles,  which  has  gained  for  them 
the  name  of  "  Whirligigs. "  They  are  remarkable  for  the  disposi- 
tion of  their  eyes,  which  are  double ;  so  that  the  GyrinidfB 
seem  to  have  four  eyes.  The  lower  ones  look  into  the  water  and 
watch  for  the  prey  or  the  fish  that  advances  as  an  enemy  ;  whilst 
the  upper  eyes  look  upwards  towards  the  air,  and  warn  the  insect 
of  the  approach  of  enemies  from  above.  To  escape  from  fish,  the 
Gyrinus  jumps  out  of  the  water,  and  also  makes  use  of  its  wings  ; 
to  escape  from  birds,  it  dives  rapidly.  This  activity,  and  this 
double  sight,  make  the  capture  of  the  Gyrini  a  task  of  great 
difficulty.  They  must  be  surprised  with  a  net.  At  the  moment 
of  being  seized,  they  emit  a  milky  and  fetid  liquid. 

The  females  lay  their  eggs  end  to  end,  on  the  leaves  of  aquatic 
plants.  The  larvae  are  long  and  narrow,  and  of  a  dirty  white. 


Fig.  494.  -  Gyrinus  natator.  Fig.  495. — Larva  of  Gyrinus  natator. 

They  come  out  of  the  water  at  the  end  of  the  summer,  and  form 
for  themselves  a  cocoon  on  the  plants  bordering  the  banks.  After 
a  month,  the  perfect  insect  is  hatched,  and  plunges  into  the  water. 
The  Gyrinus  striatus  (Fig.  496)  is  found  in  the  waters  of  Southern 
Europe. 

All  these  species  are  of  small  size,  and  do  not  exceed  a  fifth  of 
an  inch  in  length  ;  but  in  the  tropics  we  find  Gyrini  two-thirds  of 
an  inch  long.  One  of  these  species,  distinctus,  exists  in  the  little 
lake  of  Solazies,  in  Reunion  Island,  noted  for  its  mineral  waters. 
The  patients  amuse  themselves  by  fishing  for  this  insect,  with  a 


COLEOPTEKA.  481 

line  baited  with  a  bit  of  red  cloth,  which  it  attacks.  It  is  found, 
also,  in  a  mineral  spring  in  Algeria.  The  Epinectes  (Fig.  498) 
are  large  Gyrinidcn  from  Brazil,  with  very  long  front  legs. 


\ 


Fig.  496.— Gyrinus  stilatus.  Fig.  497.-Gyrinus  dislinctus.     Fig.  498.— Epinecles  sulcatus. 

The  carnivorous  land  insects  par  excellence — those  which  are 
most  formidable,  on  account  of  their  ravages  and  voracity — are  the 
Carabici.  1  his  family,  one  of  the  most  numerous  of  the  Order 
Coleoptera,  consists  of  insects  with  long  legs,  and  armed  with 
powerful  mandibles,  suited  for  tearing  their  victims  to  pieces.  They 
are  the  lions  and  the  tigers  of  the  Coleoptera,  whilst  the  Necro- 
phori  and  the  Silpha  play  the  part  of  hyaenas  and  jackals.  The 
eyes  of  the  Carabici  are  very  prominent,  which  allows  them  to 
see  their  prey  at  a  great  distance.  They  take  refuge  under  stones 
and  under  the  bark  of  trees ;  but  in  fine  weather  they  are  also  to 
be  seen  running  along  roads.  Ardent  and  audacious,  it  is  by  no 
means  rare  to  see  them  attacking  species  much  bigger  than  them- 
selves. The  activity  which  distinguishes  these  insects  is  found 
also  in  their  larvae,  which  pursue  living  prey,  instead  of  remaining 
shrouded  in  the  midst  of  their  food  like  the  larvae  of  the  Scara- 
b&ides.  - 

These  carnivorous  insects  are  very  numerous — a  fortunate  cir- 
cumstance, considering  the  immense  quantity  of  small  noxious 
creatures,  caterpillars,  weevils,  and  an  infinity  of  other  parasites, 
the  pests  of  agriculture,  which  they  destroy.  The  popular  pre- 
judice, then,  is  to  be  regretted,  which  leads  ignorant  farmers  to 
exterminate  them.  They  ought,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  intro- 
duced into  market  gardens,  as  toads  are,  and  as  cats  are  into 
granaries.  "  The  Carabici,"  says  M.  Michelet,  "  immense 
tribes  of  warriors,  armed  to  the  teeth,  which,  under  their  heavy 
cuirasses,  have  a  wonderful  activity,  are  perfect  rural  con- 

i  i 


482  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

stabulary,  day  and  night,  without  holidays  or  repose,  protecting 
our  fields.  They  never  touch  the  smallest  thing.  They  are 
occupied  entirely  in  arresting  thieves,  and  they  desire  no  salary 
but  the  body  of  the  thief  himself."  But  ignorance  destroys  these 
useful  hunters.  Children,  seduced  by  the  richness  of  the  elytra 
of  the  Carabici,  amuse  themselves  in  catching  these  vigilant 
protectors  of  our  farms,  without  knowing  the  bad  effect  of  what 
they  are  doing.  Fortunately,  education  is  spreading  little  by 
little  in  the  country ;  the  farmers  begin  to  be  awakened  to  their 
true  interests,  and  to  know  how  to  distinguish  the  useful  animals 
which  it  behoves  them  to  preserve  in  their  fields  for  the  safeguard 
of  their  crops.  In  some  places  in  France  they  have  already  made 
attempts  to  introduce  the  Carabici  and  the  Cidndeletce  into  gar- 
dens, and  they  have  found  them  succeed  very  well. 

The  true  Carabi  are  to  be  known  by  their  oval  convex  body, 
their  long  antennae,  and  elegantly  carved  thorax.  They  are,  in 
general,  of  more  massive  forms  than  the  Cicindeletce,  which  com- 
pose a  kindred  family.  The  latter  form,  in  some  sort,  the  van- 
guard and  the  light  troops;  the  others,  the  heavy  battalions. 
The  Carabi  coming  out  in  general  at  night,  or  at  least  at  twilight, 
and  keeping  themselves  hidden  under  stones  during  the  day,  it 
is  not  easy  to  observe  their  manoeuvres. 

The  Carabus  auratus  (Fig.  499),  which  abounds  in  fields  and 
gardens  on  the  Continent,  may  be  considered  as  the  type  of  this 
genus.  It  has  elytra  of  a  beautiful  green,  with  three  ribs,  and 
the  legs  yellowish.  "When  it  is  touched,  it  disgorges  a  black 
and  acrid  saliva,  and  ejects  from  the  abdomen  a  corrosive  liquid,  of 
a  disagreeable  odour.  It  lives  on  the  larvae  of  other  insects.  It 
has  been  seen  to  attack  even  large  insects,  such  as  the  cockchafer. 

In  England  and  the  environs  of  Paris,  Carabus  violaceous 
(Fig.  500),  whose  dress,  of  a  sombre  colour,  is  surrounded  by  shades 
of  red  and  violet,  is  met  with.  In  the  Pyrenees,  many  Carabi  with 
metallic  reflections  are  found,  whose  beautiful  colours  are  the 
delight  of  collectors  ;  the  Carabus  splendens,  the  Carabus  rutilans, 
&c.  But  the  most  beautiful  insects  of  this  tribe  come  from 
(Siberia  and  the  north  of  China.  Let  us  mention,  for  example, 
the  Carabus  smaragdanus,  of  a  beautiful  grass- green  ;  the  Carabus 
Vietinghovii,  of  a  beautiful  blue  black,  bordered  with  azure,  with  a 
golden  band,  &c. 


COLEOPTEEA. 


483 


The  Camlus  Adonis  (Fig.  502)  is  not  rare  in  Alsace,  and  is 
found  on  the  banks  of  streams. 


Fig.  499.— Carabus  auratus.  Fig.  500. — Carabus  violaceous. 

The  long  flat  larvae  of  the  Carabi  live  in  the  trunks  of  trees, 


Fig.  501.— Carabus  canaliculatus. 


Fig.  502.— Carabus  Adonis. 


among  leaves,  under  moss,  &c.    They  are  active,  and  live  on  other 

n2 


484 


THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 


insects.      Fig.  504  represents   the   larva   of  the    Carabus  auro- 
nitens. 

Another  genus  of  the  same  family  is   Calosoma.      They  have 


Fig.  503. — Carabus  nodulosus. 


Fig.  504.—  Larva  of  Carabus  auronitens. 


wings  under  their  elytra, — the  true  Carabi  have  not, — which  they 
use  in  passing  from  one  tree  to  another. 

In  the  month  of  June  is  to  be  found  on  oak  trees  the  beautiful 
Calosoma  sycophanta  (Fig.  505),  the  occurrence  of  which  here  is 


Fig.  505.— Calosoma  sycophanta.  Figs.  506,  507.— Pupa  and  larva  of  Calosoma  auropunctatus 

doubtful.  This  insect  is  of  a  beautiful  violet  blue,  having  the 
antennse  and  the  legs  black,  and  the  elytra  of  a  splendid  golden 
green,  with  longitudinal  streaks.  According  to  Eeaumur,  the 


COLEOPTEEA. 


485 


larva  of  the  Calosoma  often  chooses  a  home  in  the  nest  of  the 
Procession-moth  caterpillar  (Bombyx  processioned),  on  oak  trees, 
and  it  very  soon  rids  the  tree  which  is  infested  by  them. 

The  Calosoma  auropunctatus  is  peculiar  to  the  south  of  France. 
Its  larva  (Fig.  507)  devours  snails,  and  establishes  itself  in  their 
shells.  These  larvae  have  been  known  to  fill  themselves  so  full 
of  food  as  to  become  double  their  natural  size;  in  which  state 
they  are  sometimes  devoured  by  those  of  their  own  species. 
A  smaller  kind,  the  Calosoma  inquisitator,  is  very  frequently  to 
be  met  with  in  woods.  Fig.  508  presents  this  insect  pursuing  a 


Fig.  508.— Calosoma  inquisitator  pursuing  a  Bombardier  Beetle  (Brachinus  explodens). 

Bombardier  (Brachinus  explodens),  which  squirts  out  a  vapour  of 
pungent  odour. 

In  the  countries  of  the  south-east  of  Europe  and  in  Asia 
Minor,  one  finds  enormous  Carabici,  the  Procrustes  and  the  Pro- 
ceri,  which  attain  nearly  two  inches  in  length,  and  whose  in- 
teguments resemble  very  rough  shagreen.  One  species  alone  is 
met  with  in  France,  the  Procrustes  coriaceus  (Fig.  509).  In 
Austria  is  found  the  Procerus  gigas  (Fig.  510). 

The  genus  Omophron  (Fig.  511)  contains  small,  almost  globular 
Carabici,  of  a  pale  yellow,  with  green  lines,  and  which  live  in  the 
sand  bordering  rivers.  The  Nebrias  in  general  prefer  moun- 


486 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


tainous    countries.        The  largest   species,  the   Nebria  arenaria 
(Fig.  512),  is  found  all  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 


f*ig.  509.— Procrustes  coriaceus.  Fig.  510.-  Procerus  gigas. 

even  on  the  western  shores  of  France.  But  its  colours  grow  paler  as 


Fig,  511,— Omophron  libatiun. 


Fig.  512. — Nebria  arenaria. 


it  advances  northward  on  the  African  coast.  It  is  of  a  bright 
yellow,  with  black  lines.  The  Nebrias  hide  themselves  either 
under  masses  of  seaweed  cast  up  by  the  waves,  or  under  the 


COLEOPTEEA. 


487 


stumps  of  trees  cast  ashore  by  the  sea.  When  they  are  deprived 
of  their  place  of  shelter,  they  run  away  with  such  rapidity  that  it 
is  very  difficult  to  catch  them.  In  Senegal  is  found  the  genus 
Tefflus  (Fig.  513),  great  black  Cambici,  with  fluted  elytra. 

Other  kindred  genera  are — Damaster  (Fig.  514),  remarkable 
for  its  elongated  pointed  elytra  ;  Anthia  (Fig.  515),  which  is  met 
with  in  sand  in  Africa  and  in  India,  and  whose  head  is  armed  in 


Fig.  513.— Tefflus  Megerlei. 


Fig.  514.— Damaster  blaptoides. 


a  formidable  manner ;  and  Campy locnemis,  of  which  Schrceteri 
(Fig.  516),  an  Australian  insect,  of  a  bright  black,  attains  to  more 
than  an  inch  and  three-quarters  in  length,  and  whose  short,  serrated 
legs  enable  it  to  hollow  out  the  ground.  There  is  found  on  the 
coasts  of  the  south  of  France  a  representative  of  this  group  in  the 
Scarites  Icemgatus  (Fig.  517),  which  conceals  itself  in  a  hollow  like 
the  cricket,  and  devours  everything  which  comes  within  its  reach. 


488  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

The  innumerable  tribe  of  Harpalid  contains  carnivorous  beetles 


Fig.  515.— Antliia  thoracica.  Fig  516.— Campylocnemia  Schroeteri. 

of  very  small  size,  sometimes  of  a  bronze-green,  sometimes  black, 


Fig.  517. — Searitea  la;vigatus. 

either  dull  or  shining,   and  which   render  great  service  to   our 


COLEOPTEEA. 


489 


gardens.  Hidden  under  stones,  in  dry  leaves,  at  the  foot  of 
trees,  they  attack  a  number  of  small  insects,  caterpillars,  mille- 
pedes, &c.,  and  thus  exterminate  a  quantity  of  vermin.  The 
Harpalus  aneus  (Fig.  518),  which  is  seen  shining  in  the  midst 
of  the  paving  stones,  like  a  little  bronze  plate,  is  found  everywhere. 
The  Galeritas  (Figs.  519  and  520)  are  distinguished  by  their 
antennae,  which  are  thick  at  the  base  ;  they  exhale  a  very  strong 
odour :  nearly  all  are  peculiar  to  America.  One  of  the  most  curious 


Fig.  5 18. 
Harpalus  seueus. 


Fig.  519 
Larva  of  GraleritaLecontei. 


Fig.  520. 
Galerita  Lecontei. 


insects  of  this  tribe  is  the  Mormolyce  phyllodes  of  Java  (Fig.  521), 
whose  elytra  project  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  it  the  appear- 
ance of  a  leaf.  It  lives  under  bark.  The  larva  and  the  pupa 
(Fig.  522)  resemble  those  of  other  genera  of  which  we  have  been 
speaking. 

The  next  great  family  of  the  tribe  of  carnivorous  beetles  is 
composed  of  the  Cicindeletce,  slender  insects,  with  large  promi- 
nent heads,  very  long  legs,  and  which  are  very  active  in  their 
movements.  The  Cicindeletce  like  sandy  plains.  When  the 
sun  shines  they  fly  in  a  zig-zag  manner ;  but  their  flight  is  not 


490  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

continued  for   long  together.      In  dull  weather,  they  are  to  be 


Fig.  521.  -  Mormolyce  pliyllodes. 

seen  running  on  the  turf  or  hiding  themselves  in  holes,  and  are 


Fig.  522  —Larva  and  pupa  of  Mormolyce  phyllodes. 

met  with  on  the  sea- shore,  where   they  are  seen  somotimes    to 


COLEOPTEKA, 


491 


pop    up  by   hundreds.       They  live    on  flies  and  little  shrimps, 
which  abound  on  the  sea-shore. 

The  Cicindela  campestris  (Fig.  523),  or  Tiger  beetle,  is  of  a 
beautiful  green  spotted  with  white  ;  the  abdo- 
men is  of  a  bronze-red.  In  this  country  it  is 
the  commonest  of  the  genus.  The  Cicindela 
hybrida,  of  a  dull  green,  relieved  by  ten  light 
bands,  inhabits  sandy  woods ;  the  Cicindela 
maritima  differs  from  the  preceding.  The 
Cicindela  sylvatica,  which  flies  very  well,  is  not 
easy  to  catch,  and  is  to  be  often  met  with  in 
the  warm  glades  of  the  forest  of  Fontainbleau 
and  Montmorency ;  it  is  notunfrequent  here.  Its 
colour  is  brown,  spotted  with  white  ;  it  diffuses 
a  strong  smell  of  the  rose,  to  which  succeeds, 
on  being  seized,  the  acrid  odour  of  the  secretion  which  it  dis- 
gorges. We  here  represent  the  Cicindela  Dumoulinii  (Fig.  524), 


Fig.  523.— Tiger  Beetle 
{Cicindela  campestris) . 


Fig.  524.-  Cicindela  Dumoulinii.        Fig.  525.— Cicindela  rugosa. 


Fig.  526.  -  Ck-indela  scalaris 


the  Cicindela  rugosa  (Fig.  525),  the  Cicindela  scalaris  (Fig.  526), 
the  Cicindela  hews  (Fig.  527),  the  Cicindela  quadrilineata  (Fig. 
528),  and  the  Cicindela  capensis  (Fig.  529). 

The  ferocity  of  these  insects  is  remarkable.  They  quickly  tear 
off  the  wings  and  legs  of  their  victim,  and  suck  out  the  con- 
tents of  its  abdomen.  Often  when  they  are  disturbed  in  this 
agreeable  occupation,  not  wishing  to  leave  it,  they  fly  away  with 
their  prey ;  their  flight,  however,  is  not  sufficiently  powerful  to 


492 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


allow  of  their  carrying  to  any  great  distance  such  a  heavy  burden. 
When  a  Cidndela  is  seized  between  the  fingers,  it  moves  about  its 
mandibles  and  endeavours  to  pinch,  but  its  bite  is  inoffensive 
and  not  very  painful.  They  are  prodigiously  active  in  running. 


Fig.  527.— Cicindela  heros. 


Fi*.  528. -Cicindela 
quadriliueata. 


fc.  529.-Cidiidela 
capensis. 


Armed  with  jaws  which  are  powerful  enough  to  overcome  their 
victims  and  to  seize  them  at  once,  they  can  dispense  with  strata- 
gems. 

Their  larvae  (Fig.  530)   are  soft,  and  have   short   legs.      To 
satisfy  their  voracity  they  are  obliged  to  lie  in  ambush  in  holes. 


Fig.  530- — Larva  of  Cicindela 
campestris. 


Fig.  531. — Ambush  of  larva  of 
Cicindela  campestris. 


They  are  two- thirds  of  an  inch  long;  their  head  is  horny 
and  in  the  form  of  a  trapezium.  The  first  segment  is  also 
horny,  and  of  a  metallic  green.  The  eighth  has  a  pair  of  tuber- 
cles with  hooks,  of  which  the  larva  makes  use  in  ascending 


COLEOPTEEA. 


493 


and  descending  its  vertical  hole,  like  a  sweep  in  a  chimney. 
This  hole  (Fig.  531)  is  a  foot  or  more  deep.  To  dig  it,  the 
larva  employs  its  mandibles  and  its  legs  in  the  following 
manner :  it  twists  itself  round,  loads  with  earth  the  flat  surface 


Upper-side. 


Under-side . 


Figs.  532, 533.— Pupa  of  a  Cicindela, 

which  covers  its  head,  climbs  along  the  chimney  by  twisting  itself 
into  the  form  of  the  letter  Z,  and  thus  transports  its  load,  as  a 
bricklayer's  labourer  carries  a  hod  of  mortar  up  a  ladder.  Arrived 
at  the  mouth  of  the  hole,  it  throws  to  a  distance  the  rubbish  with 


Fig.  534.— Megacephala  Klugii.  Fig.  535.— Megacephala  oxychiloides. 

which  its  head  is  loaded;  or  if  too  heavy,  it  simply  deposits 
it,  pushing  it  away  as  far  as  possible.  It  is  difficult  to  watch 
their  proceedings  ;  for  they  are  very  mistrustful,  and  retire  im- 
mediately into  their  hole  when  alarmed.  They  remain  in  ambush 
at  the  entrances  of  these  subterranean  passages,  which  they 


494 


THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 


hermetically  seal  with  their  head  and  thorax.  It  is  a  species 
of  pitfall  which  sets  itself  in  motion  the  moment  any  thing- 
endeavours  to  pass  it.  The  unfortunate  who  ventures  is  pre- 
cipitated into  the  well,  and  the  Cicindela  forthwith  devours 
it.  These  habits  remind  one  of  those  of  the  Ant-lion.  When 
the  time  arrives  for  the  metamorphosis,  the  larva  of  the  Cicindela 
increases  in  size  at  the  bottom  of  its  hole,  and  stops  up  the 
entrance  with  earth  before  changing.  The  pupa  (Figs.  532,  533) 
is  of  a  pale  glossy  yellow,  covered  with  small  spikes.  The  meta- 
morphosis takes  place  between  August  and  October ;  the  perfect 

insect  emerges  in  spring. 

Nearly  akin  to  the  Cicin- 
delas  are  the  Megacephalas 
(Figs.  534,  535,  536),  from 
Africa  and  tropical  America  ; 
the  Manticoras  (Fig.  537), 
which  are  distinguished  by  their  robust  and  thick- set  appearance ; 


Fig.  536.— Megacephala  bifasciata. 


Fig.  537.-Manticora  tuberculosa.  Fig.  638.— Pogonostoma  gracilis. 

the  Pogonostomas   (Fig.  538),   which   live   in  Madagascar;    the 


COLEOPTEEA. 


495 


Ctenostomas,  peculiar  to  America  (Fig.  539),  remarkable  for  the 
length  of  their  pendant  and  bristly  palpi ;  the  Omus,  of  Cali- 
fornia; the  Tkerates  (Fig.  540),  insects  of  New  Holland,  &c. 

The  tribe  of  Pimeliarice,  called  formerly  Melasomas,  because 
they  are  nearly  all  black,  resembles  in  some  points  the  Carabici. 
They  seek  after  dark  places,  and  avoid  the  light,  and  are 


Fig.  539. — Ctenostoma  rugosa. 


Fig.  540.— Therates  labiata. 


found  on  the  ground  under  stones  ;  their  movements  are  slow, 
and  they  walk  with  difficulty.      The  best  known  insect  of  this 


Fig.  541.— Bla[5s  obtusus. 


Fig.  542.— Tenebrio  molitor 
(larva  and  imago). 


group  is  the  Blaps,  of  repulsive  smell,  inhabiting  dark  damp 
places,  such  as  cellars,  and  only  coming  out  of  its  retreat  during 
the  night.  The  elytra  are  joined  together,  and  they  have  no  wings. 
The  vulgar  regard  them  as  an  omen  of  ill-luck.  Fig  541  repre- 
sents the  Blaps  obtusus.  According  to  the  report  of  a  traveller, 
the  women  in  Egypt  eat  the  Blaps  sulcata  cooked  with  butter  to 


496  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

make  them  fat.     They  are  employed  also  against  the  ear-ache,  the 
bite  of  scorpions,  &c. 

Another  genus  of  the  same  family  is  the  Tenebrio  (Fig.  542), 
of  a  blackish-brown,  with  the  elytra  streaked,  and  of  half  an 
inch  in  length.  The  larvae,  the  well-known  meal-worms,  live  in 
flour  ;  they  are  cylindrical,  and  of  a  light  tawny  colour  (Fig.  542). 
The  insect  which  is  considered  as  the  type  of  the  tribe  of  the 
PimeliaricB  is  the  Pimelia  bipunctata,  which  is  common  in  the  south 
of  France. 

We  come  now  to  the  tribe  of  blistering  beetles,  of  which  the 
best  known  is  the  Cantharides  (Cantharis  or  Lytta).  These 
insects  are  generally  of  soft  consistency ;  and  their  elytra  very 
flexible.  A  few  remain  constantly  on  trees.  All  are  very  brisk 
and  active.  When  swallowed  they  are  a  dangerous  poison,  but 
are  used  in  medicine  for  making  blisters. 

The  Cantharides  of  commerce  (Cantharis  (Lytta)  vesicatoria] 
are  of  a  beautiful  green,  attain  to  a  size  of  four-fifths  of  an  inch, 
and  are  found  on  ash  trees,  lilacs,  and  other  shrubs.  Commerce  for 
a  long  time  brought  them  from  Spain,  and  some  still  come  from 
that  country ;  hence  the  common  name  of  Spanish  fly.  As  they 
live  in  great  numbers  together,  collecting  them  is  easier  and  less 
expensive  than  would  be  that  of  other  species  of  the  same  family 
which  are  not  gregarious,  but  which  have  the  same  medicinal 
properties.  The  presence  of  the  Cantharides  is  manifested  by 
the  smell  of  mice,  which  they  diffuse  to  some  distance.  When, 
by  aid  of  this  smell,  they  are  discovered,  generally  settled  on  an 
ash,  they  are  collected  in  the  following  manner.  Yery  early  in 
the  morning  a  cloth  of  light  tissue  is  stretched  out  at  the  foot 
of  the  tree,  and  the  branches  are  shaken,  which  causes  the  insects 
to  fall.  These,  numbed  by  the  cold  of  the  night,  do  not  try  to 
escape.  When  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity,  the  four  corners 
are  drawn  up  and  the  whole  plunged  into  a  tub  of  vinegar 
diluted  with  water.  This  immersion  causes  the  death  of  the 
insects.  They  then  carry  them  to  a  loft,  or  under  a  very  airv 
shed.  To  dry  them  they  spread  them  out  on  hurdles  covered 
with  linen  or  paper,  and  from  time  to  time,  to  facilitate  the  opera- 
tion, they  are  moved  about,  either  with  a  stick  or  with  the  hand, 
which  is  more  convenient,  but  it  is  then  necessary  to  take  the  pre- 


PLATE  XL 


Gathering  Cantharides. 

[Page  496. 


COLEOPTEEA.  497 

caution  of  putting  on  gloves,  for  if  touched  with  the  naked 
hand,  they  would  cause  more  or  less  serious  blisters.  The  same 
precaution  must  be  observed  in  gathering  them. 

When  the  Cantharides  are  quite  dry,  they  put  them  into  wooden 
boxes,    or   vessels   of  glass   or  earthenware,    hermetically  sealed, 
and  preserve   them    in   a   place   protected   from    damp.      With 
these  precautions,  they  may  be  kept  for  a  long  while  without 
losing  any  of  their  caustic  properties.      Dumeril  made  blisters  of 
Cantharides  which   had    been    twenty-four   years  in   store,    and 
which  had  lost  none  of  their  energy.      When  dry  they  are  so 
light  that  a  kilogramme  contains  nearly  thirteen  thousand  insects. 
Aretius,  a  physician  who  flourished  at  Rome  in  the  first  century 
of  our  era,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  employ  Cantharides, 
reduced  to  powder,  as  a  means  of  vesication.  Hippocrates  adminis- 
tered them  internally  in  cases  of  dropsy,  apoplexy,  and  jaundice. 
But  it  is  pretty  nearly  established  that  the  Cantharides  of  the 
ancients  were  not  the  same  species  used  at  the  present  day.     They 
were    probably   a   kindred   species,  the   Mylabris    chicorii.        A 
blistering  principle  has  been  extracted  from  these  insects  called 
Cantharadine.    This  organic  product  presents  itself  under  the  form 
of  little  shining  flakes,  without  colour,  soluble  in  ether  or  oil. 
One  atom  of  this  matter  applied  to  the  skin,  and  particularly  to 
the  lower  lip,  makes  the  epidermis  rise  instantaneously,  and  pro- 
duces a  small  blister  filled  with  a  watery  liquid.     In  spite  of  the 
corrosive  principle  which  the  Cantharis  contains,  it  is  attacked, 
like   other  dried  insects,  by  the  Dermestes  and  the  Ant/iremis, 
which  feast  on  them  without  suffering  the  smallest  inconvenience. 
The  genus  Mylabris  corresponds  most  in  structure,  in  appearance, 
and  in  properties,  to    Cantkaris,  whose  place  they  take  in   the 
East,  in  China,  and  in  the  south  of  Europe.      They  are  found  in 
clusters  on  the  flowers  of  chicory,  thistles,  &c.      The  Mylabris 
chicorii,  common  enough  in  France,  especially  in  the  south,  is  of 
small  size,  whilst  the  other  species  are  rather  large.     It  is  black, 
hairy,  with  a  large  yellowish  spot  at  the  base  of  each  elytron,  and 
two  transverse  bands  of  the  same  colour. 

Another  genus  of  this  family  is  Meloe,  with  very  short  elytra, 
and  without  wings.  They  walk  slowly  and  with  difficulty  on  low 
plants,  the  female  dragging  along  an  enormous  abdomen  filled 

K  K 


498  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

with  eggs.  They  are  generally  observed  in  spring.  In  Germany 
they  give  them  the  name  of  Mamurm  (May worm).  Their  succu- 
lence would  expose  them  without  doubt  to  the  voracity  of  birds, 
and  of  insect-eating  Mammifers,  if  they  had  not  the  power  of 
exuding  at  will,  in  the  moment  of  danger,  from  all  their  articula- 
tions, an  unctuous  humour,  of  a  reddish-yellow  colour,  the 
odour,  and  probably  also  the  caustic  properties,  of  which  repel  the 
aggressor.  The  females  lay  their  eggs  underground,  and  out  of 
theso  come  forth  larvae  of  a  strange  shape.  Swallowed  by  cattle, 
they  cause  them  to  swell  and  die.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
Latreille  has  given  it  as  his  opinion  that  tbese  insects  are  the 
Buprestis  of  the  ancients,  of  which  the  law  of  Cornelius  speaks, 
"Lex  Cornelia  de  sicariis  et  veneficis."  But  the  name  of 
Buprestis  was  applied  by  Linnaeus  to  a  genus  of  which  we  shall 
treat  farther  on,  and  it  has  been  generally  adopted  by  naturalists. 

The  commonest  among  the  Meloes  is  the  Meloe  proscarabteus, 
which  is  to  be  found  in  abundance,  in  the  month  of  April,  in  the 
meadows  near  the  bridge  of  Ivry,  in  the  environs  of  Paris.  The 
metamorphoses  of  the  insects  of  this  family  had  remained  for  a 
long  time  surrounded  with  an  impenetrable  veil  of  mystery,  but  the 
researches  of  Newport  in  England,  and  of  M.  Fabre  (of  Avignon) 
in  France,  have  made  known,  in  our  days,  phases,  extremely 
curious,  under  which  are  accomplished  the  metamorphoses  of 
the  Sitaris  humeralis,  a  species  which  belongs  to  the  same  family.* 
These  observations,  of  which  we  are  about  to  give  a  rapid  sum- 
mary, will  probably  help  towards  unravelling  the  first  states  of 
Cantharis. 

The  Sitaris  kumeralis  (Fig.  543)  takes  no  nourishment  when 
arrived  at  the  perfect  state.  When  the  female  has  been  im- 
pregnated, she  lays  at  the  entrance  of  the  nest  of  a  solitary 
bee  from  two  to  three  thousand  very  small  whitish  eggs,  stuck 
together  in  shapeless  masses.  A  month  afterwards  there  come 
out  of  these  eggs  very  small  larvae,  of  a  shiny  dark  green, 
hard  skinned,  armed  with  strong  jaws,  and  long  legs  and  antennae 
(Fig.  544).  These  are  the  first  larvae.  They  remain  motion- 
less and  without  taking  food  till  the  following  spring.  At 
this  period  are  hatched  the  male  bees,  which  precede  the  appear- 

*  Annales  des  Sciences  Naturelles,  18.57,  4e  serie,  tome  vii.,  p.  300. 


COLEOPTEEA. 


499 


ance  of  the  females  by  a  month.  As  -the  bees  come  out  of  their 
nests,  these  larvae  hook  themselves  on  to  their  hairs,  and  pass  from 
them  to  the  females,  at  the  coupling  period.  When  the  male 
bees  have  built  the  cells,  and  furnished  them  with  honey,  the 
female,  as  we  know,  deposits  in  each  an  egg.  Immediately 


Fig.  543.— Sitaris  humeralis. 


Fig.  544. — First  larva  of  Sitaris  humeralis 
(magnified.) 


the  larvae  of  the  Sitaris  let  themselves  fall  on  these  eggs, 
open  them  and  suck  their  contents.  Then  they  change  their 
skin,  and  the  second  larva  appears.  This  one  gets  into  the  honey, 
on  which  it  feeds  for  six  weeks.  It  is  blind,  whereas  the  first 
larva  was  provided  with  four  eyes,  no  doubt  to  enable  it  to  see 


Fig.  545. — Pseudo-nymph 
of  Sitaris  humeralis. 


Fig.  546.— Third  larva  of  Sitaris 
humeralis. 


Fig.  547.— Pupa  of  Sitaris 
humeralis. 


the  bees  which  were  to  serve  as  its  conductors,  in  like  manner  as 
the  companions  of  Ulysses  watched  the  sheep  of  Polyphemus,  so 
as  to  escape  out  of  the  cave  in  which  they  were  retained  as  prisoners. 
A  few  days  later,  and  this  second  larva  contracts,  and  detaches 
from  its  body  a  transparent  skin,  which  discloses  a  mass,  at  first 

K  K  2 


500  THE  INSECT  WOBLD. 

soft,  which  very  soon  hardens,  and  becomes  of  a  bright  tawny 
colour ;  it  is  called  the  pseudo-nymph  (Fig.  545).  It  goes  through 
the  winter  in  this  state.  In  the  spring  comes  forth  a  third  larva 
(Fig.  546),  resembling  the  second.  This  one  does  not  eat,  and 
moults  after  a  time.  It  very  soon  changes  into  an  ordinary 
pupa  (Fig.  547),  of  a  yellowish- white,  from  which  comes  forth  the 
adult  Sitaris,  which  lives  only  a  few  days,  to  ensure  the  propaga- 
tion of  its  species,  as  is  observed  in  the  case  of  the  Ephemerte. 
The  larvae  of  the  Sitaris  had  for  a  long  time  been  remarked 
clinging  on  to  the  hairs  of  the  Anthophoras;  but  they  were  always 
taken  for  Acari,  and  they  had  been  described  as  such. 

The  Lampyridae  have  the  elytra  weak  and  soft,  like  the  insects 
of  the  preceding  tribe.  In  their  perfect  state  they  frequent 
flowers.  The  larvae  are  carnivorous,  attacking  other  insects  or 
worms.  It  is  to  this  group  that  the  Lampyris  noctiluca,  or  glow- 
worm, which  one  sees  shining  during  summer  nights  on  grass 
and  bushes,  belongs.  It  has  the  power  of  making  this  natural 
torch  shine  or  disappear  at  will,  which  is,  by-the-bye,  a  property 
common  to  all  phosphorescent  animals. 

The  luminous  properties  with  which  these  insects  are  endowed 
have  for  their  object  to  reveal  their  presence  to  the  opposite  sex, 
for  the  females  alone  possess  these  properties.  In  the  same  way 
as  sounds  or  odours  exhaling  from  some  insects  attract  the  one 
towards  the  other  sex,  so  with  the  Lampyris  a  phosphorescent 
light  shows  the  females  to  the  males.  The  seat  of  the  phos- 
phorescent substance  varies  according  to  the  species.  It  exists 
generally  under  the  three  last  rings  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  light 
is  produced  by  the  slow  combustion  of  a  peculiar  secretion.  It 
has  been  stated  that  it  is  evolved  quickly  when  the  animal  con- 
tracts its  muscles,  either  spontaneously  or  under  the  influence  of 
artificial  excitement.  Some  chemical  experiments  have  been  made 
to  ascertain  the  nature  or  the  composition  of  the  humour  which 
produces  this  strange  effect ;  but,  up  to  this  moment,  they  have 
only  enabled  us  to  discover  that  the  luminous  action  is  more 
powerful  in  oxygen,  and  wanting  in  inert  gases.  In  the  most 
common  species,  the  Lampyris  noctiluca,  or  Glow-worm,  the  phos- 
phorescence is  of  a  greenish  tint ;  it  assumes  at  certain  moments 
the  brightness  of  white-hot  coal. 


COLEOPTEEA.  501 

The  females  have  no  wings,  while  the  males  have  them,  and 
possess  very  well  developed  elytra.  The  females  resemble  the 
larvae  much,  only  they  have  the  head  more  conspicuous,  and 
the  thorax  buckler- shaped,  like  the  male.  The  larvae  feed  on 
small  molluscs,  hiding  in  the  snails'  shells  after  having  devoured 
the  inhabitant.  They  also  possess  the  phosphorescent  property 
in  a  less  degree  than  the  adult  females.  The  female  pupa 
resembles  the  larva ;  the  pupa  of  the  male,  on  the  contrary,  has 
the  wings  folded  back  under  a  thin  skin.  The  perfect  insect 
appears  towards  the  autumn. 

The  Glow-worm  (Lampyris  noctiluca,  Fig.  548)  is  of  a  brownish 
yellow.  It  is  common  in  England.  In  a  kindred  species,  the 


Fig.  548. — Lampyris  noctiluca  (male  and  female.) 

Ludola  Italica,  the  two  sexes  are  winged,  of  a  tawny -brown, 
and  equally  phosphorescent.  They  are  met  with  in  great 
numbers  in  Italy,  and  the  lawns  are  covered  with  them.  Other 
insects  of  this  family  are  without  the  faculty  of  emitting  light ; 
as  for  example,  the  genus  Lyons,  of  brilliant  colours,  which  are 
met  with  in  Africa  and  India.  One  of  the  finest  is  the  Lycm 
latissimus. 

Drylus  is  another  genus,  comprising  insects  of  very  singular 
habits.  The  type  is  the  Drylus Jidwscens.  The  male — a  quarter 
of  an  inch  long,  black  and  hairy,  with  elytra  of  a  testaceous 
yellow,  and  provided  with  antennae  and  long  filaments — for  a 
long  time  was  alone  known.  The  female — from  ten  to  fifteen 
times  as  large,  without  wings  and  elytra,  of  a  yellowish  brown 
— was  not  discovered  till  much  later,  having  apparently  nothing 
in  common  with  the  male  in  shape  or  colour.  The  metamor- 
phoses of  these  curious  insects  are  now  perfectly  understood. 
Mieczinsky,  a  Polish  naturalist  established  at  Geneva,  found  the 
Drylus  in  the  larva  state  in  the  shell  of  the  Helix  nemoralis. 


502  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 

These  larvae  devour  the  snail  whose  dwelling  they  occupy,  as  do 
the  larvae  of  the  Lampyris.  Mieczinsky  saw  them  emerge,  but 
obtained  only  females,  which  differed  scarcely  at  all  from  the 
larvae  from  which  they  proceeded.  He  made  a  separate  genus  of 
them,  under  the  denomination  of  Cochleoctonus,  and  called  the 
species  vorax.  Later,  Desmaret  resumed  these  observations.  He 
provided  himself,  at  the  Veterinary  College  of  Alfort,  with  a 
number  of  shells  of  the  Helix,  filled  with  the  same  larvae.  He 
saw  come  out  of  them,  not  only  Cochleoctoni,  but  also  Dryli,  and  he 
watched  their  coupling.  It  was  then  proved,  by  this  unanswerable 
argument,  that  these  two  insects,  so  unlike  each  other,  belong 
to  the  same  species. 

The  larva  of  the  Drylus  Jlavescens  fixes  itself  upon  the  shell 
of  the  snail  by  a  sort  of  sucker,  like  a  leech.  Little  by  little,  it 
slips  in  between  the  mollusc  and  its  house,  and  devours  it  entirely. 
To  change  into  a  pupa  it  shuts  up  the  entrance  to  the  shell  with 
its  old  skin,  and  when  arrived  at  the  perfect  state,  quits  the  shell 
which  served  it  as  a  temporary  dwelling.  The  females  of  the 
Drylus  Jlavescens  take  refuge  under  stones  and  dry  leaves,  or 
crawl  slowly  along  the  ground,  whilst  the  males,  which  fly  with 
great  ease,  are  on  the  plants  and  brushwood.  These  insects  are 
not  rare  in  the  environs  of  Paris.  M.  H.  Lucas  has  observed, 
in  Algeria,  near  to  Oran,  another  curious  species,  the  Drylus 
mauritanicus.  The  larva  of  this  insect  lives  at  the  expense 
of  the  animal  of  the  Cyclostoma  Volzianum,  which  closes  the 
entrance  to  its  shell  with  a  covering  of  some  calcareous  sub- 
stance. It  fixes  itself  on  the  edge  of  the  shell,  with  the  aid 
of  its  sucker,  and  directs  its  strong  mandibles  to  the  side  on 
which  the  snail  is  obliged  to  raise  the  covering,  either  to 
breathe  the  air  or  to  walk.  In  this  position  it  has  the  patience 
to  wait  for  many  days  at  the  door.  The  snail  puts  off  for 
as  long  a  time  as  he  is  able  the  fatal  moment.  But  when,  over- 
come by  hunger  or  nearly  stifled  in  his  prison,  he  decides  at 
last  to  open  his  door,  the  Drylus  profits  immediately  by  this 
opportunity,  and  cuts  the  muscle  which  keeps  back  the  foot  of  the 
snail.  The  breach  being  made,  nothing  more  opposes  itself  to 
the  entrance  of  the  enemy.  He  slips  in,  and  sets  to  work  to 
eat  at  his  leisure  the  unfortunate  inoffensive  mollusc,  which  affords 


COLEOPTEEA.  503 

him  board  and  lodging.     The  Ptilodactydce,  the  Eucineti,  and  the 
Cebrios  belong  to  the  same  family.     The  first  two  are  exotics. 

The  Elateridce  are  rather  large  insects,  often  of  hard  texture, 
having  the  prosternum  prolonged  into  a  point  (Figs.  549  and 
550),  and  the  antennae  indented  saw- wise.  They  have  the  power 
of  jumping  when  placed  on  their  backs,  and  of  alighting  again 
on  their  legs.  Hence  their  name  of  Elater  (derived  from  the  same 
root  as  the  word  elastic).  They  produce,  in  leaping,  one  sharp 
rap,  and  often  knock  many  raps  when  they  are  prevented  from 
projecting  themselves.  This  is  the  mechanism  which  permits  the 


Fig.  550. — Jumping  organ  of  the  Elater, 
seen  bide  ways. 


Fig.  ,549.— Jumping  organ  Fig.  551.— Larva  of  ihe  Elater. 

of  the  Elater. 

skip-jack  to  execute  these  movements.  It  bends  itself  upwards 
by  resting  on  the  ground  by  its  head  and  the  extremity  of 
the  abdomen ;  and  then  it  unbends  itself  suddenly,  like  a 
spring.  The  point  at  the  end  of  the  thorax  penetrates  into 
a  hollow  of  the  next  ring;  the  back  then  strikes  with  force 
against  the  plane  on  which  it  rests,  and  the  animal  is  projected 
into  the  airc  It  repeats  this  manoeuvre  till  it  finds  itself  on 
its  belly,  for  its  legs  are  too  short  to  allow  of  its  turning  over. 
Its  structure  supplies  it  with  the  means  and  the  strength  of 
rebounding  as  many  times  as  it  falls  on  its  back,  and  it  can  thus 
raise  itself  more  than  twelve  times  the  length  of  its  body. 

The  larvae  of  the  Elaters  (Fig.  551)  are  cylindrical,  with  scaly 
skin  and  very  short  legs.  They  live  in  rotten  wood  or  in  the 
roots  of  plants.  According  to  M.  Goureau,  they  pass  five  years 
in  this  state. 

The  larvae  of  the  genus  Agriotes  occasion  considerable  damage 


504  THE  INSECT  WOKLD. 

to  wheat-fields.  They  much  resemble  the  meal-worm,  or  larva 
of  the  Tenebrio.  The  Tetralobites  are  the  largest  of  the  Elateridce, 
attaining  to  a  length  of  two  inches  ;  and  are  inhabitants  of  the 
East  Indies  and  Africa. 

In  America  are  found  phosphorescent  Elaterida.  These  are 
the  Pyrophori,  which  the  Spaniards  of  South  America  call  by  the 
name  of  Cucuyos.  They  have,  at  the  base  of  their  thorax,  two 
small,  smooth,  and  brilliant  spots,  which  sparkle  during  the 
night ;  the  rings  of  the  abdomen  also  emit  a  light.  They  give 
light  sufficient  to  enable  one  to  read  at  a  little  distance.  The 
Pyrophorus  noctilucus  (Fig.  552)  is  very 
common  in  Havannah,  in  Brazil,  in  Guyana, 
in  Mexico,  &c.,  and  may  be  seen  at  night 
in  great  numbers,  in  the  foliage  of  trees. 
At  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  a 
battalion,  just  disembarked,  did  not  dare  to 
engage  with  the  natives,  because  it  took  the 
Cucuyos  which  were  shining  on  the  neigh- 
bouring trees  for  the  matches  of  the  arque- 
buses ready  to  fire.  "In  these  countries," 
says  M.  Michelet,  "  one  travels  much  by 

Fig.552.-,TheCucuyo  nigK    to    6SCaP6    fr°m    tne    ^eat.        But    One 

(Pyrophorus  nocuiucus}.  ^^  not  flare  to  plunge  into  the  peopled 
shades  of  the  deep  forests  if  these  insects  did  not  reassure 
the  traveller.  He  sees  them  shining  afar  off,  dancing,  twisting 
about ;  he  sees  them  near  at  hand  on  the  bushes  by  his  side ;  he 
takes  them  with  him ;  he  fixes  them  on  his  boots,  so  that  they 
may  show  him  his  road  and  put  to  flight  the  serpents ;  but  when 
the  sun  rises,  gratefully  and  carefully  he  places  them  on  a 
shrub,  and  restores  them  to  their  amorous  occupations.  It  is  a 
beautiful  Indian  proverb  that  says,  '  Carry  away  the  fire- fly ;  but 
restore  it  from  whence  thou  tookest  it.'"*  The  Creole  women 
make  use  of  the  Cucuyos  to  increase  the  splendour  of  their 
toilettes.  Strange  jewels!  which  must  be  fed,  which  must  be 
bathed  twice  a  day,  and  must  be  incessantly  taken  care  of,  to 
prevent  them  from  dying.  The  Indians  catch  these  insects 
by  balancing  hot  coals  in  the  air,  at  the  end  of  a  stick,  to  attract 

*  "  L'Insecte." 


COLEOPTEEA.  507 

in  death."  Here  is  the  story  of  which  this  name  is  destined  to 
preserve  the  remembrance,  and  which  Latreille  himself  has  related 
in  his  "Histoire  des  Insectes."  Before  1792,  Latreille  was  known 
only  from  some  memoirs  which  he  had  published  on  insects.  He 
was  then  priest  at  Brives-la-Gaillarde,  and  was  arrested  with  the 
Cures  of  Limousin,  who  had  not  taken  the  oath.  These  unfortu- 
nates were  taken  to  Bordeaux,  in  carts,  to  be  transported  to 
Guyana.  Arrived  at  Bordeaux,  in  the  month  of  June,  they  were 
incarcerated  in  the  prison  of  the  Grand  Seminaire  till  a  ship 
should  be  ready  to  take  them  on  board.  In  the  meanwhile,  the 
9th  Thermidor  arrived,  and  caused  the  execution  of  the  sentence 
which  condemned  the  priests  who  had  not  taken  the  oath  to 
transportation  to  be  for  a  while  suspended.  However,  the  prisons 
emptied  themselves  but  slowly,  and  those  who  had  been  condemned 
had  none  the  less  to  go  into  exile,  Only  their  transportation  had 
been  put  off  till  the  spring. 

Latreille  remained  detained  at  the  prison  of  the  Grand  Semi- 
naire. In  the  same  chamber  which  he  occupied,  there  was,  at 
the  time,  an  old  sick  bishop,  whose  wounds  a  surgeon  came 
each  morning  to  dress.  One  day  as  the  surgeon  was  dressing  the 
bishop's  wounds,  an  insect  came  out  of  a  crack  in  the  boards. 
Latreille  seized  it  immediately,  examined  it,  stuck  it  on  a  cork 
with  a  pin,  and  seemed  enchanted  at  what  he  had  found. 

"  Is  it  a  rare  insect  then  ?"  said  the  surgeon. 

"  Yes,"  replied  the  ecclesiastic. 

"  In  that  case  you  should  give  it  to  me." 

"Why?" 

"  Because  I  have  a  friend  who  has  a  fine  collection  of  insects 
who  would  be  pleased  with  it." 

"  Yery  well,  take  him  this  insect ;  tell  him  how  you  came  by  it, 
and  beg  him  to  tell  me  its  name." 

The  surgeon  went  quickly  to  his  friend's  house.  This  friend 
was  Bory  de  Saint  Vincent,  a  naturalist  who  became  celebrated 
afterwards,  but  who  was  very  young  at  that  time.  He  already 
occupied  himself  much  with  the  natural  sciences,  and  in  par- 
ticular with  the  classing  of  insects.  The  surgeon  delivered  to 
him  the  one  found  by  the  priest,  but  in  spite  of  all  his  researches, 
he  was  unable  to  class  it. 


508  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

Next  day  the  surgeon  having  seen  Latreille  again  in  his  prison, 
was  obliged  to  confess  to  him  that  in  his  friend's  opinion  this 
Coleopteron  had  never  been  described.  Latreille  knew  by  this 
answer  that  Bory  de  Saint  Vincent  was  an  adept.  As  they  gave 
the  prisoner  neither  pen  nor  paper,  he  said  to  his  messenger, — 

"I  see  plainly  that  M.  Bory  de  Saint  Yincent  must  know  my 
name.  You  will  tell  him  that  I  am  the  Abbe  Latreille,  and  that 
I  am  going  to  die  at  Guyana,  before  having  published  my  '  Examen 
des  Genres  de  Fabricius.' ' 

Bory,  on  receiving  this  piece  of  news,  took  active  steps,  and 
obtained  leave  for  Latreille  to  come  out  of  his  prison,  as  a  con- 
valescent, his  uncle  Dayclas  and  his  father  being  bail  for  him, 
and  pledging  themselves  formally  to  deliver  up  the  prisoner 
the  moment  they  were  summoned  to  do  so  by  the  authorities. 
The  vessel  which  was  to  have  conducted  Latreille  to  exile  or 
rather  to  death,  was  getting  ready  whilst  these  steps  were  being 
taken,  and  while  Bory  and  Dayclas  were  obtaining  leave  for  him 
to  come  out  of  prison.  This  was  quite  providential,  for  it  foundered 
in  sight  of  Cordova,  and  the  sailors  alone  were  able  to  save  them- 
selves. A  little  time  afterwards  his  friends  managed  to  have  his 
name  scratched  out  from  the  list  of  the  exiles.  It  is  thus  that 
the  Necrobia  ruficollis  was  the  saving  of  Latreille. 

The  tribe  of  weevils  is  even  much  more  numerous  than  that  of 
the  Elateridce  and  the  Buprestidce.  One  may  know  them  by  their 
head  prolonged  into  a  snout  or  trumpet,  by  their  rudimentary 
mouth,  and  by  their  elbowed  antennas.  There  exist  about  twenty 
thousand  species.  They  feed  on  vegetables.  Their  larvaa  are 
soft,  whitish  worms,  without  legs,  with  very  small  heads,  and  live 
in  the  interior  of  the  stalks  or  seeds  of  plants,  often  occasioning 
enormous  damage.  They  are  one  of  the  plagues  of  agriculture. 
Each  of  our  dry  vegetables,  each  variety  of  our  cereals,  has  in 
this  immense  family  its  particular  enemy. 

First  are  the  Bruchi.  The  Pea  weevil  (Bruchus  pisi,  Fig.  554), 
which  is  brown  with  white  spots,  comes  out  of  the  pea,  at  the 
end  of  the  summer.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  on  peas  which 
are  ripe,  and  still  standing,  in  which  the  larva  scoops  out  a  habi- 
tation, and  then  makes  its  exit  by  a  circular  hole  (Fig.  555).  It 
remains  at  rest  all  the  winter,  and  is  not  hatched  till  towards  the 


COLEOPTEEA. 


509 


following  spring.  The  Bean  weevil  (Bruckus  rujimanus)  marks 
each  bean  with  many  black  spots.  The  vetch  has  also  its  special 
Bruchus.  The  Wheat  weevil  (Calandra  granaria),  of  a  darkish 


Fig.  554. — Pea  weevil  (Bruchits  pisi)  magnified.  Fig.  555. — Imago  and  pea  pierced  by  the  larva 

brown,  lays  its  eggs  on  the  grains,  of  which  the  larvae  then  eat 
the  interior.  A  host  of  ways  of  getting  rid  of  the  weevil  have 
been  proposed.  The  best  means  is  to  store  corn  properly  in  pits 
for  preserving  grain,  and  to  keep  the  heap  well  aired.  Let  us 
mention  further,  the  Clover  weevil,  belonging  to  the  genus  Apion, 
the  weevil  of  the  Rape  (Gripidius  brassicce),  the  Turnip  weevil 
(a  species  of  Ceutorhynchus),  &c.,  &c. 


Fig.  556.— Pissodes  pini. 

All  vegetables,  the  vine,  fruit  trees,  the  ash,  pines,  &c.,  are 
eaten  by  some  weevil.  As  an  example,  we  give  a  figure  of  the 
spotted  Pissodes  pini,  which,  as  the  figure  shows,  takes  the  pre- 
caution of  cutting  half  through  the  young  stems  and  the  stalks  of 
the  leaves  of  the  pine,  "  so  as,"  says  M.  Maurice  Girard,*  "  that 

*  "Metamorphose  des  Insectes,"  p.  116. 


510  THE  INSECT  WOELD. 

the  sap  flows  only  with  difficulty  into  the  withered  organ,  and 
Cannot  suffocate  the  young  larvae." 

ScolytuS)  Hylesinus,  and  Bostrichus,  which  are  connected  with 
the  weevils,  hollow  out  galleries  between  the  wood  and  the 
bark  of  different  trees,  when  in  the  larva  state,  and  devour  the 
leaves  in  the  adult  state.  Fig.  557  represents  the  Hylesinus  pini- 
perda.  The  Scolyti  are  sometimes  so  numerous  in  the  forests, 
that  the  trees  are  tatooed  all  over  by  the  larvae.  In  1837,  they 
were  obliged  to  cut  down,  in  the  Bois  de  Yincennes,  twenty 
thousand  feet  of  oak  trees,  aged  from  thirty  to  forty  years,  com- 
pletely ruined  by  the  ravages  of  the  Scolytus,  whose  larva  is  here 
represented  (Fig.  558).  The  genus  Tomicus,  hairy,  and  of  a  tawny 
colour,  are  a  terrible  plague  to  pine  forests.  In  1783,  in  the 


Fig.  557.-  Hylesinus  piniperda.  Fig.  558.— Larva  of  Scolytus. 

Forest  of  Hartz,  a  million  and  a  half  of  trees  were  lost  by 
these  insects.  Often  have  the  priests  implored,  in  the  churches, 
the  Divine  clemency,  to  put  an  end  to  the  devastations  made  by 
them. 

We  arrive  at  the  tribe  of  the  Longicornes,  which  contains 
beautiful  insects,  of  elegant  shape  and  varied  colours,  sometimes 
also  of  rather  large  dimensions. 

The  genus  Cerambyx  has  the  antennae  very  long ;  they  exceed 
in  some  of  the  species  two  or  three  times  the  length  of  the  body. 
The  larvae  are  large  whitish  worms,  which  live  in  the  wood  of  trees, 
the  adult  insects  frequenting  flowers,  rotten  trees,  &c.  In  the 
month  of  June,  on  the  Continent,  one  meets  on  the  oaks  with  the 
Great  Capicorne  (Cerambyx  heros,  Fig.  559),  of  a  dark  brown, 


COLEOPTEEA. 


511 


whose  larva  (Fig.  560)  scoops  out  its  galleries  in  the  interior  of 
the  tree,  and  often  occasions  much  damage. 

The  Chrysomelida  are  other  phytophagous  insects,  dressed  in 
the  brightest  colours,    having   short   and   thickset   bodies.     The 


Fig.  559. — Imago  and  pupa  of  Cerambyx  heros. 


larvae,  soft  and  ovoid,  devour  the  leaves  of  trees.  One  of  the  best 
known  species  is  Lina  populi,  of  a  bronzed  colour,  with  red  elytra, 
whose  larva  (Fig.  561),  of  a  greenish  grey,  devours  the  leaves 
of  the  poplar  tree.  The  Galerucce  and  the  Altica  belong  to  the 


Fig.  560.— Larva  of  Cerambyx  heroe. 


same  family,  as  also  do  the  Capidce,  the  Crioceres,  and  the  Donacice 
The  Capida  viridis  frequents  nettles  and  artichokes ;  the  elytra 
are  of  rounded  form.  Fig.  562  represents  the  Crioceris  merdigera, 
a  great  rarity  in  this  country.  The  Crioceris  asparagi,  or 


512 


THE  INSECT  WORLD. 


Asparagus  beetle,  tawny,  and  barred  with  black,  resembles  it  in 
habit. 
The  last  genus  of  Coleoptera    comprises   the    Coccinellidce,  or 


Fig.  563.— Lady-bird. 
(Coccinell a  septem- 
dunctata.') 


Fig.  561.— Larva  of 
Lina  popnli. 


Fig.  562  — Larva  and  imago  of 
Crioceris  merdigera. 


Fig.  564.-  Larva  of  the 
Lady-bird. 


Lady-birds  (Fig.  563).  These  little  globular,  smooth  insects, 
red  or  yellow,  with  black  spots,  are  very  useful  to  us,  for  they 
clear  the  trees  of  the  aphides  and  other  mischievous  insects. 
Their  larvae  (Fig.  564)  make  use  of  their  front  legs  to  carry  their 
prey  to  their  mouths.  "When  danger  threatens  a  Coccinella,  it 
hides  its  feet  under  its  body,  and  remains  sticking  to  the  stem  of 
the  bush.  If  you  touch  it,  it  allows  itself  to  fall  to  the  ground, 
but  sometimes  opens  its  elytra,  and  flies  off  rapidly.  It  also 
exudes  from  the  articulations  of  its  abdomen  a  yellow  mucilaginous 
liquid,  of  a  pungent  and  disagreeable  odour.  This  is  the  only 
means  of  defence  possessed  by  this  little  inoffensive  being,  which 
deserves  in  all  respects  the  name  "  Bete  a  bon  Dieu,"  which  the 
French  children  give  it. 


i  N  D  E  X. 


Abdomen,  the,  1,  172. 

AMominal  cavity,  contraction  and  dilatation  of, 

17. 

Abraxas  grossulariata,  268. 
Acalyptera,  69,  84. 
Acanthia  ciliata,  95. 
Acanthia  lectularia,  93. 
Acanthops,  290.. 
Acherontia  Atropos,  207,  203. 
Acilius  t'asciatus,  478. 

-  sulcatus,  478. 
Acronj'Cta  aceris,  larva  of,  156. 
Acrydium,  300. 

-  migratorium,  301. 
JE(\ia,  pusiella,  268. 
/Edippdium  niigratorium,  301. 
Agarion,  423. 

Agriotes,  lame  of  the  genus,  503. 
Ailanthus  silkworm,  247. 
Alimentary  canal  ot  insects,  9,  et  seq. 
Alticse,  511. 

Alucita  granella,  the,  277. 
Amphidosis  betularia,  267. 
Andrense,  the,  370. 
Anoraala,  456. 

-  vitis,  456. 
Anostostomze,  the,  300. 
Anthrenus  muscorum,  474. 
Ant,  312,  380,  382. 

-  Ashy,  385. 

-  Ashy-black,  385. 

-  Black,  385. 

—  Brown,  385. 

—  Blood-red,  385,  394. 

-  Jet,  385. 
--  Mason,  385. 

-  Mining,  385,  396. 

-  Red,  381,  385,  386,  396. 
-   pupa  of,  387. 

-  Russety,  385,  394. 

—  Tawny,  ?83. 

-  Turf,  385. 

—  Yellow,  385. 

—  White,  see  Termea. 
Antennse,  5  ;  function  of,  6. 
Anthia,  487. 

Anthocharis  cardamines,  181,  183, 
Anthocopas,  the,  370. 

-    papaveris,  370. 
Anthomya,  83. 

pluvial  is,  84. 


Anthophora  parietina,  366. 
Anthomyzides.  69,  83. 
Anthophoras,  the,  366. 
Anthrax,  56. 
--  sinuata,  56. 
Antithesia  salicana,  268,  270. 
Ant-lion,  404,  424. 
Apatura,  Ilia,  195. 
—  Iris,  195. 

Aphides  and  Ants.  127,  392. 
Aphidii,  the,  102. 


Aphis,  Charles  Bonnet  on  the,  123;  of  the 
apple,  121 ;  of  the  oak,  125 ;  of  the  plan- 
tain, 124. 

Aphrophora,  the,  115. 

Apiarise,  the,  313. 

Apis  fasciata,  358. 

mellifica,  358. 

—  Peronii,  358. 

Aptera,  probable  dismembennent  of  the  order, 

29. 

Argyrolepia  seneana.  268,  270. 
Articulate  animals,  egg-state  common  to,  20. 
Ascalaphus,  425 ;  larva  of,  427. 

meridionalis,  427. 

Asilici,  54. 

Asilus  crobroniformis,  54. 

Ateuchus,  459. 

—  Egyptiorum,  460. 

—  sacer,  459. 

Attacus,  the  genus,  214,  243  ;  of  the  Ailanthus, 
247 ;  of  the  castor-oil,  247. 

—  Atlas,  251.  252. 
Cynthia,  247. 

—  Mylitta,  243,  246. 
Pernyi,  245,  246. 

—  ricini,  249. 

Yama-mai,  245. 

Attagenus  pellio,  473. 

Bachys,  the  genus,  506. 

Bee,  312;  cells  constructed  by,  326;  bellows 
used  to  stupify,  358. 

—  Banded,  358. 

—  Carding,  361. 

—  Carpenter,  367. 

—  Common,  358. 

—  Humble,  313,360;  male,  M>1. 

—  larva  of,  331. 

—  Leaf-cutting,  369. 

—  Ligurian,  358. 

—  male,  318. 

—  Mason,  368. 

—  Mining,  370. 

—  moss,  361. 

—  queen,  318. 
Solitary,  366. 

—  Upholsterer,  370. 

—  Wood-piercer,  367. 

worker,  317. 

Beetle,  Asparagus,  512. 

— -  Bacon,  473. 

—  Bee,  445. 

—  Clock,  Dumbledore,  Shard-born,  458. 
Rose,  438. 

—  Stag,  462. 
Tiger,  491. 

—  Water,  476 

—  Whirligig,  476 
Bittacus  tipularis,  428,  429. 
Hlaps,  495. 

obtusus,  495. 

-    sulcata,  495. 


L    L 


514 


INDEX. 


Blatta,  284. 

germanica,  286. 

laponica,  286. 

orientalis,  237. 

Blepharis,  290. 
mendica,  290. 

Boatman,  the,  98. 

Bombus  muscorum,  361. 

Bombycidse,  251. 

Bombycina,  214. 

Bombyliarii,  54. 

Bombylius  major,  55. 

Bombyx,  214 ;  caterpillar  of,  222  ;  of  the  Ailan- 
thus,  247 ;  of  the  castor-oil,  247. 

Atlas,  252. 

Cynthia,  247. 

mori,  214,  229 ;  apparatus  for  stifling 

the  chrysalides  of,   239;   cocoon   of,  237, 
238 ;  larva,  pupa,  and  moth  of,  238. 

neustria,  252. 

Pernyi,  246. 

processionea,  252. 

ricini,  249. 


yama-mai,  245. 

Boreus  hyemalis,  428,  429. 
Bostrichus,  510. 

capucinas,  400. 

Bot-fly,  the,  59,  62. 

Brachycera,  meaning  of  the  word,  52. 

Bracliycola  robusta,  288. 

Breeze-fly  of  the  sheep,  66. 

Bruchis,  508. 

pisi,  508. 

rufimanus,  502. 

Bug,  91 ;  egg  of,  94 ;  means  of  destroying,  95 ; 
Moquin-Sandon  on,  94. 

Bed,  93. 

Fly,  95. 

Needle,  98. 

Bed  Cabbage,  91. 

Bed  Garden.  93. 

Water,  91,  93. 

Wood,  91. 

Buprestidae.  506. 

Buprestis,  498. 

— • albosparsa,  506. 

impei  ialis,  506. 

Burnet-moth,  198. 

Six-spot,  198. 

Butalis,  277. 
Butterflies,  Copper,  184. 

Hair-streak,  183. 

Butterfly,  definition  of,  169,  eyes  of,  173  ;  flight 
of,  172  ;  scales  of,  170. 

Black  hair-streak,  184. 

Black-veined  white,  181. 

Blue  Argus,  187. 

Brimstone,  183. 

Brown  Argus,  It  7. 

Brown  hair-streak,  184. 

Cabbage,  153,  181. 

Clouded  yellow,  183. 

Comma,  192. 

Green  hair-streak,  184. 

Green-veined  white,  182. 

Large  Tortoise-shell,  187,  188. 

Meadow  brown,  197. 

Orange-tip,  183. 

Painted  Lady,  191. 

Peacock,  188. 

Purple  Emperor,  195. 

Purple  hair-streak,  134. 

-  Red  Admiral,  190. 

—  Scarce  Swallow-tailed,  179. 

Small  Tortoise-shell,  188. 

— Small  white,  182. 

Swallow-tailed,  177. 

White  Admiral,  191. 


Caddis-flies,  404,  424,  429. 
Calandra  granaria,  509. 
Calepteryx,  422. 
Callidium,  410. 

sanguineum,  401.    ' 

Calliphora,  76. 

vomitoria,  76 ;  Reaumur  on, 

Cj'losoma,  484. 

auro-punctatus,  485. 

inquisitator,  485. 

sycophanta,  484. 

Campylocnemis,  487. 

•   shrceteri,  487. 

Cantharadine,  497. 
Cantharides,  496. 
Cantharis,  496. 

vesicatoria,  496. 

Capida,  511. 

viridis,  511. 

Capricorne,  Great,  510. 
Carabus  Adonis,  483. 

auratus,  482 ;  nervous  system  of,  20. 

auronitens,  larva  of,  484. 

rutilans,  482. 

smaragdarius,  482. 

splendens,  482. 

Vietinghovii,  482. 

violaceus,  482. 

Castor-oil  plant,  silkworm  of  the,  249. 
Caterpillar,  food  of,  147;  description   of,  ib.; 

scaly  legs  of  the  oak  and  elm,  142 ;  Looper, 

144,  264. 
Catocala,  156. 
Americana,  the,  260,  262. 

fraxini,  260,  261 ;  lame  of,  156. 

nupta,  261,  263. 

paranympha,  260. 

Cebrio,  503. 
Cecidomyia,  47,  note. 
Centrotus  cornutus,  119. 
Cephalsemia  ovis,  66. 
Cerambyx,  510. 

heros,  510. 

Cercopis  spumaria,  116. 

Cetonea  argentea,  441.  • 

aurata,  431. 

pubescens,  441. 

punctulata,  441. 

splendidula,  439. 

Cetoniides,  438. 

Cheerocampa  Elpenor,  201,  204. 

nerii,  201. 

Chafers,  438. 

Chalcidiae,  the,  288;  larvae  of,  313. 
Chalicodoma,  368  ;  nests  of,  369. 
Charaxes  Jasius,  195, 196. 
Chartergus  lecheguana,  379. 

nidulans,  379. 

Cheimatobia  brumata,  266, 267. 

Chelonia  caja,  157 ;  larva  of,  158. 

Chermes  variegatus,  134. 

Chiasognathus  Grantii,  465. 

Chigo,  the,  32;  eggs  not  hatched  in  the  wound 

made  by,  33. 

Chionobas  Aello,  196,  197. 
Chlorion  compressum,  287. 
Choreutes  dolosana,  268,  270. 
Chrysalis,  20,  149 ;  meaning  of  the  word,  note 

164. 

Chrysides,  the,  313. 
Chrysochroa,  the  genus,  506. 
Chrysomelidse,  511. 
Chrysops  ceecutiens,  54. 
Cliylific  ventricle,  9,  10 ;  its  appendages,  10. 
Cicada,  102. 

Ash,  110. 

orni,  111 

-    plebeia,  110. 


INDEX. 


515 


Cicadariae,  102. 
Cicindela,  campestris,  491. 

capensis,  491. 

Dumoulinii,  491. 

heros,  491. 

hybrida,  491. 

maritima,  491. 

quadrilineata,  491. 

rugosa,  491. 

scalaris,  491. 

sylvatica,  491. 

Cicindeletae,  482,  489. 
Cimex  lectularius,  93. 

Circulation  in  insects,  12,  et  seq.;  incomplete,  28. 
Claviger,  472. 

foveolatus,  473. 

Cleptes.  313. 

Clerii,  506. 

Clems  formicarius,  506. 

Cloeon,  419. 

dipt  era,  419. 

Coccinella  septemdunctata,  512. 
Coccinellidae,  512. 
Coccus,  133. 

cacti,  134. 

ilicis,  138. 

locca,  139. 

manniparus,  140. 

pplonicus,  139. 

sinensis,  140. 

Cochineal,  134. 

Oak-tree,  134. 

Cochleoctonus,  502. 

vorax,  502. 

Cochylis  francilana,  268. 

Cockchafer,  438,  446 ;  larva  of,  451 :  pupa  of.  451. 
Cockroach,  283,  284,  285. 
Colias  edusa,  181,  183. 
Colymbetes  cinereus,  479. 

notatus,  479, 

striatus,  479. 

Conops,  59,  68. 

rufipes,  the,  68. 

Copiphora,  300. 
Copris,  459. 

lunaris,  459. 

Corixa,  99. 

femorata,  100. 

mercenaria,  100. 

striata,  99. 

Corydia,  the  species  of,  288. 
Cossus,  the  genus,  357. 

ligniperda,  257. 

Crachat  de  Coucou,  115. 
Creophili,  the,  69. 
Cricket,  283,  293. 

Field,  293. 

House,  294. 

Mole,  295. 

Crioceris,  511. 

asparagi,  511. 

merdigera,  511. 

Crop,  the,  9. 
Ctenostoma,  459. 
Cuckoo's  spittle,  115. 

Cucullia  verbasci,  159 ;  cocoon  of,  160 ;  larva  of, 

160. 

Cucuyo,  504. 
Culex,  the,  38. 
Culicidae,  the,  38. 
Cursoria,  291. 
Cybister,  476,  478. 

Koeselii,  478. 

Cynips,  the,  398. 

insana,  399. 

—  quercusfolii,  399. 
Cynthia  cardui,  191. 
Cyphocrana  gigas,  291. 
Oyria  imperialis,  6U6. 


Dacus,  85. 

olese,  86;  M.  Guerin-Meneville  on,  81. 

Damaster,  487. 

Decticus  verrucivorus,  299. 

Deilephila,  the  genus,  201. 

Elpenor,  201,  204. 

euphorbia;,  201. 

nerii,  201,  202. 

Dermaptera,  the  order,  283,  note. 

Dermestes  lardarius,  473. 

vulpinus,  473. 

Dermestidse,  473. 

Dichjeta,  the,  59. 

Dicranura  verbasci,  258. 
vinula,  larva  of,  162,  258. 

Diptera,  fecundity  of  the,  37 ;  divisions  of  the 
order,  37 ;  meaning  of  the  name,  36 ;  organs 
of  the,  ib. ;  immense  number  of  species  of, 
37 ;  the  office  of  the,  ib. ;  strength  in  th», 
26. 

Dom  Allou,  Beaumur's  mention  of,  42. 

Donacia  nymphea,  26. 

Donacise,  511. 

Dragon-fly,  404,  419 ;  common,  422.. 

Drylus,  the  genus,  501. 

flavescens,  501. 

— : —  mauritanicus,  502. 

Dytiscus,  476. 

latissimus,  478. 

marginalis,  477. 

Earwig,  Common,  283,  284. 
Echinomyia,  the  genus,  69. 
Eewne  printani&re,  115. 
Elateridae,  503. 

phosphorescent,  504. 

Elenchus,  435. 

-   Walkeri,435. 

Elytra,  meaning  of  the  word,  note,  96. 
Empidiae,  M.  Macquart  on  the,  54,  55. 
Empusa,  290. 

gongylodes,  290. 

Enema  infundibulum,  460. 
Ephemera,  404,  418;  larva  of  an,  419;  pupa  of 
an,  ib. 

Common,  417. 

respiratory  apparatus  of,  19. 

vulgata,  417. 

Ephemerae,  55. 
Ephemeridae,  417. 
Ephippiger,  300. 

vitium,  300. 


Epinectes,  481. 

eulcatus,  481. 

Erebia  Euryale,  196. 

Krebusstrix,  261,  263. 

Ereiniaphila,  290. 

Eremobia,  the,  311. 

Euchlora,  456. 

Eyes,  2 ;  compound,  ib. ;  number  of  facettes  in 
various  insects,  ib. ;  in  the  genus  scara- 
baeus,  ib. ;  crystalline  of,  3 ;  pigment  of,  ib. ; 
simple,  4. 

Femur,  7. 

Flea,  29 ;  jump  of  a,  24 ;  strength  of,  30 ;  eggs 

of,  31 ;  the  learned,  ib.;  metamoq)hosis  of, 

32 ;  larva  of,  ib. 

grasshopper,  117. 

Flies,  a  beggar  eaten  by,  72. 
Fly,  tongue  of,  82. 

Executioner,  83. 

House,  S3. 

Lantern,  112. 

Ox,  83. 

Spanish,  496. 

Forficula,  284. 

auricularia,  284. 


Formica  cuuicularia,  395, 


516 


INDEX. 


Formica  flava,  385. 

fuliginosa,  385. 

fusca,  385. 

sanguinea,  394,  396. 

Formicse,  381. 
Formiearise,  313. 
Fossores,  397. 

Fossorial  Hymenoptera,  397- 
Froghopper.  117. 
Fulgora  laternaria,  112. 

Gad-fly,  59  ;  M.  Joly  on,  61. 
Galerita,  489. 

Lecontei,  489. 

Galeruca?,  511. 

Galleria,  Bee-hive  or  Wax,  277,  351. 

Gallicolse,  313. 

Gallinsecta,  102,  133. 

Gall-ir  sects,  the,  313,  398. 

Galls,  Oak/399. 

Ganglions,  cephalic.  19. 

Laeordaire,  M.,  on,  20. 

Gastrus  equi,  60. 

Geocorisaj,  the,  91. 
Geometers,  145,  262. 
Ge'ometrinae,  the  family  of  the,  262. 

caterpillars  of  the,  264. 

Geotrupes,  457. 

stercorarius,  26,  458. 

Ghost-moth,  the,  257. 

Gizzard,  the,  9. 

Glossina  morsitans,  73. 

Glow-worm,  500. 

Gnat,  the,  38;  water  good  for   the    cure   of 

bites,  41. 

Gnorimus  nobilis,  446. 
Goat-moth,  257. 
Goliatlms,  441. 

cacious,  442. 

Derbyana,  442. 

Druiyi,  442. 

Polyphemus,  442. 

Gonepter}'x  rhamni,  18:!. 
Grapta,  C-album,  the,  192. 
Grasshopper,  283,  293. 

Great  Green,  299. 

Grave-diggers,  467. 

Grillacris,  the  genus,  300. 

Gripidius  brassier,  509. 

Gryllo-talpa  vulgaris,  the,  295 ;   nest  of  the, 

297. 
Gryllus  campestris,  the,  293. 

domesticus,  the,  294, 

sylvestris,  the,  294. 

Guerin-Meneville,  M.,  on  the  Sciara,  50. 
Gullet,  9. 

Gyrinidse,  476,  480. 
Gyrinus,  480. 

distinctus.  480. 

natator,  480, 

— —  striatus,  480. 

Halictophagus,  435. 

Curtisii,  435. 

Harpalici.  488. 
Harpalus  teneus,  489. 

ftilvus,  479. 

Hautle,  M.  Virlet  d'Aoust's  description  of,  100. 
Hawk-moth,  Elephant,  201,  204. 
Eyed,  213. 

Lime-tree.  211. 

Oleander,  201,  202. 

Poplar,  213. 

Head,  the,  1. 
Heart,  13. 
Helomyza,  95. 
Helophilns.  56. 
Hemerobidae,  427. 
Hemerobius,  427. 


Hepialus,  the  genus,  257. 

humuli,  257. 

Herisson,  157. 
Hecerocera,  see  Moth. 
Hipparchia  Janira,  197. 
Hister,  466. 

Hive,  Bell-shaped,  354. 

English,  354. 

Garden,  356. 

interior  of  a,  327. 

Polish,  355. 

.   Swiss,  355. 

Homoderus  Mellyi,  465. 
Hop-dog,  the,  255. 
Hornet,  the,  373,  378. 
Humble  Bee,  312 ;  nest  of,  363. 
Hybernia  defoliaria,  266. 

leucophearia,  266. 

Hydaticus  grammicus.  479. 
Hydrocorisse,  the,  91,  98. 
Hydrometra  stagnorum,  98. 
Hydrometrse,  the,  91,  98. 
Hydrophili,  474. 
Hydrophilus,  four  stages  of  the.  22. 

piceus,  474. 

Hydroporus  confluens,  479. 

griseo-striatus,  479. 

Hydropsyche,  432. 

atomaria,  432. 

Hydrous  fuscipes,  476. 
Hygrobia  Hermann!,  479. 
Hylesinus,  510. 

piniperda,  510. 

!    Hymenoptera,  Fossorial,  397. 

power  of  flight  in  the,  26. 

I 

Ichneumons,  the,  397;  larvae  of,  313. 
Imago,  20. 
Inca,  446. 

—  clathrata,  447. 

Insect,  names  of  the  principal  parts  of  an,  1 ; 
various  stages  of,  20;  strength  of,  23; 
power  of  traction  in,  25;  classes  of,  28. 

Leaf,  284. 

Intestine,  large  and  small,  9. 

Jassus  devastatans,  117. 
Julodis,  the  genus,  506. 

Kakerlac  Americana,  287. 

—  insignis,  287. 
Kermes,  138. 
,  Polish,  139. 

Laccophilus  minutus,  479. 

—  variegatns,  479. 
Lackey  Moth,  the,  252. 
Lady-birds,  512. 
Lamellicornes,  the,  438. 
Lampyridse,  500. 
Lnmpyris  noctiluca,  500. 
Larva,  20;  meaning  of  the  word,  22. 
Leaf-rollers,  271. 
Lecheguana,  the,  379. 
Legs  of  Insects,  7,  ft  sen. 
Leopard,  Wood,  257. 
Le  Petit  Diable,  119. 

Lepidoptera,  meaning  of  the  word,  141  •   an- 
tenna of,  174. 
Leptides,  54. 
Libellula,  404,  419. 
Libellula  depressa,  422. 
Limenitis  Camilla,  194. 

Sibilla,  194. 

Lina  populi,  511. 

Lions  des  pucerons,  427. 

Liparis,  the  genus,  21 J. 

chrysorrhcea,  256. 

Lobster-Moth,  259. 


INDEX. 


61' 


Locust,  283,  293,  301. 

Locusta  viridiasima,  299. 

Longicornes,  510. 

Lophyrus  pini,  403. 

Louse,  33 ;  means  employed  to  kill,  34 ;  of  the 

bee,  351. 

—  Plant,  102,  119. 
Lucanus,  461. 

—  bellicosus,  465. 
cervus,  464. 

Mellyi,  465. 

Titan,  465. 

Lucilia  Csesar,  the,  71. 

hominivorax,  the,  71. 

Luciola  Italica,  50 1. 
Lycaena,  genus,  186. 

segon,  187. 

Battus,  187. 

Corydon,  187. 

see  Polyommatus. 

Lycsenidse,  family  of  the,  183. 
Lycus,  the  genus,  501. 

latissimus,  501. 

Lygeeus,  genus,  91,  93. 
Lyfta,  496. 

vesicatoria,  496. 

Macroglossa,  the  genus,  1CJ9. 

stellatarum,  199. 

Malpighian  vessels,  11. 
Mandibles,  nerves  of  the,  20. 
Manticora,  494. 

tuberculosa,  494. 

Mantidie,  the,  288. 
Mantis,  the  genus,  283,  284. 

oratoria,  290. 

-  religiosa,  288,  289. 
Mantispa,  423. 

pagan a,  423. 

Marte,  le,  157. 

Mason  Bee,  nest  of,  369. 

May-fly,  417;  respiratory  apparatus  of,  19. 

Meal  won 1 1,  504. 

Megacephala,  493. 

Megachile,  369, 

: centuncularis,  370. 

Rose,  370. 

Melasoma,  495. 
Melipona,  the,  313,  359. 

. —   scutellaris,  nest  of,  360. 

Meloe,  497. 

proscarabseus,  498. 

Melolontha,  Golden,  4,  438. 
brunnea,  456. 

fullo,  456. 

. vulgaris,  438;  larva  of,  451  ;  pupa 

of,  ib. 

Merian,  Mdmlle.  Sybille  de,  113. 
Metamorphoses,  23. 
Migratory  Locust,  301. 
Mole  Cricket,  the  nest  of  the,  297. 
Mormolyce  phyllodes,  489. 
Moth,  definition  of,  197. 
Bee-hive.  269. 

Brown-tailed,  256. 

Burdock,  282. 

Carpet,  281. 

Cherry-tree,  282. 

Clothes,  269. 

Currant,  267. 

Emperor,  251. 

Fur  or  skin.  278,  281. 

Hair,  278,  281. 

-  Hawthorn,  282. 
— -  Peppered,  267- 

Procession,  252. 

Rustic,  282. 

Winter,  266. 

-  Woollen,  278. 
Mouches  papilionacees,  430. 


Mouth  of  insects,  1,  5. 
Musca  bovina,  83. 

—  carnifex,  83. 

—  domestica,  83. 

Muscides,  the,  68 ;  M.  Macquart  on  the,  70. 
Mutilla  Europsea,  397. 
Mylabris,  497. 

chicorii,  497. 

Mynneleo,  424. 

formicarius,  424. 

libelluloides,  425 ;  larva  of,  427. 

Myrmeleonidse,  424. 
Myrmeleonides,  404. 
Myrmicae,  the,  381. 
Myrmica  rubra,  the,  385. 

rufa,  381 ;  pupa  of,  387. 

Myzoxylus  mali,  121. 

Nebria,  485. 

arenaria,  436. 

brevicollis,  25. 

ruficollis,  508. 

Necrobia,  genus,  506  ;  meaning  of  the  name,  ib. 
Necrodes,  467. 

lacrympsa,  467. 

—  littoralis,  467. 
Necrophorus,  466,  467. 
germanicus,  469. 

vespillo,  25,  469. 

Xemobius  sylvestris,  294. 
Nemoptera,  426. 

Coa,  427. 

Nemoura,  416. 

variegatus,  417. 

Nepa,  98. 

cinerea,  98. 

Nervous  system  in  insects,  19. 
|    Neuroptera,  strength  of,  26. 
j    Noctua  brunea,  the,  260. 

i nebulosa,  260. 

nusiva,  260. 

I tegamon,  259. 

Noctuina,  the  group,  259 ;  caterpillars  of  the, 

Noterus  crassicornis,  478. 
Notonecta,  98,  101. 

—  glauca,  M.  L6on   Dufour    on  the, 
101,  102. 
Nymph,  20. 

Nymphalidee,  the  family,  194. 
Nyssia  zonaria,  the,  267. 

Ocelli,  2.  4. 
Ocypus  olens,  471. 
Odynerus,  380. 
(Ecanthus,  295. 

CEcophora,  269 ;  caterpillars  of  the  genus,  282. 
(Esoghagus,  9. 

(Estrus,  59;  parasitical  on  man,  ib. ;  M.  Joly 
on  the,  67. 

bovis,  62. 

—  equi,  59. 

—  ovis,  66. 
Ommexa,  311. 
Omophron,  485. 
Omus,  495. 

Onthophagus  muchicornis,  26. 
Ophion,  398. 

Orange-tip  butterfly,  181. 
Orgyia,  214, 254. 

-    pudibunda,  255. 
Ortalidse,  85. 

Ortalis,  the  Cherry-tree,  86. 
Oryctes  dichotomus,  457. 

nasicornis,  26,  456. 

Osmia,  368. 

bicornis,  369,  note. 

Osmoderma  eremita,  446. 
Osmylus  maculatus,  427. 
Ourapteryx  sambucaria,  larva  of,  145. 


518 


INDEX. 


O  vipositor,  21. 

Palpi,  7. 

Panorpas,  428. 

Panorpatse,  404,  428. 

Papilio,  177. 

Papilio  Alexanor,  178,  179. 

-  Hospitou,  179. 

-  Machaon,  177  ;  larva  of,  178. 
--  Podalirius,  177,  179. 
Papilionidae,  family  of  the,  177. 
Parnassius,  the  genus,  177. 

-  Apollo,  177,  180. 

-  Nmemosyne,  177r  131. 
Pediculus  capitis,  33. 
Pegomyas,  the,  84. 
Pentatoma,  91. 

--  Blue,  92. 
---  Grey,  91. 

-  ornata,  91. 
Penthina  pruniana,  268. 
Perla,  416. 

-  bicaudata,  417. 

-  marginata,  416. 
Phalanges  of  the  foot,  7. 
Phaneroptera,  300. 
Phasma,  284,  291- 

'  ?as,  291. 


Philanthus,  397. 

-  triangulum,  397. 
Philobacera  fagana,  268. 
Phryganea,  55,  424. 
---    atomaria,  432. 

-  flavicornis,  430. 
---    pilosa,  431. 
---    rhombica,  429,  430. 
Phryganidse,  404,  424,  429. 
Phthiriasis,  the  disease  called,  34. 
Phyllium,  the  genus,  291. 
Pieridse,  the  family  of  the,  181. 

Pieria  brassicse,  153,  181;  pupae  of  the,  155. 

-  Callidice,  3,  181,  182. 

-  crataegi,  181. 

-  napi,  181,  182,  183. 

-  rapse,  182. 
Pimelia,  398. 
--  bipuuctata,  496. 
Pimeliariae,  495. 
Pissodes  pini,  509. 
Platydactylus,  295. 
Pneumorge,  311. 

Poedisca  autumnana,  the,  268. 

-  occultana,  the,  268,  270. 
Pogonostoma,  494. 

Polisles,  378. 

-  gallica,  373  ;  nest  of,  379. 
Polyergus,  382. 

-  rufescens,  385,  394. 
Polyommatus,  186. 
--  Gordius,  the,  186. 
----  phleeas,  184. 
--  virgaurese,  185. 
--  see  Lycaena. 
Pompilus,  397. 

Ponera,  381. 

Procerus,  485. 

--    gigas,  485. 

Procession  Moth,  larvse  of  the,  254. 

Procris,  198. 

-  statices,  198. 
Procrustes,  485. 

—  coriaceus,  485. 
Pselaphus,  472. 

—  Heisii,  472. 
Psithyrus,  365. 
Psyche,  256. 

--   graminella,  256. 

-    muscella,  256. 
--    rubicolella,  256. 


Ptilodactyd*,  503. 
Pulex  irritana,  29. 

penetrans,  32. 

Pupa,  20. 

Puss-moth,  larva  of  the,  162. 

Pyralina,  the  section,  268. 

Pyralis  of  the  vines,  269,  273,  275 ;   caterpillar 

of,  275  ;   chrysalis  of  the,  275  ;  cocoon  of, 

162. 

corticalis,  larva  of,  161. 

Pyrophorus,  504. 
noctilucus,  504. 

Bam  Sphinx  of  Geoffroy,  198. 
Ranatra,  99. 
Eaphidia,  423. 
Raphigaster  griseus,  191. 
Rat-tailed  Maggot,  57. 
Redunderwing  moth,  261. 
Reduvius,  91. 

>;  DeGeeron,  96. 


Regnier's  dynamometer,  24. 

Respiratory  sj'stem,  15 ;  Lyonnet's  discovery  of, 

in  the  caterpillar   of  the  goat-moth,   16; 

M.  Milne  Edwards  on,  17;  of  aquatic  in 

sects,  18. 

Rhipiptera  Order,  435. 
Rhizotrogus,  456. 
Rhodocera  rhamni,  181,  183. 
Rhopalocera,  177. 
Rhyocophilus,  432. 

vnlgatus,  432. 

Robin's  Cushion,  399. 

Saga,  300. 

Sanatoria,  the,  291. 

Saphis  cimicoi'de,  479. 

Sarcophaga,  70 ;  the  females  viviparous,  ib. 

Sarrothripa  revayana,  268,  270. 

Saturnia  carpini,  251  ;  magnified  wing  of,  171. 

Pavonia-major,  250. 

Satyridee,  the  family  of  the,  196. 

Satyrus  janira,  the,  197. 

Sauterelles-Puces,  117. 

Saw-flies,  313 ;  larva;  of,  402. 

Searabeeides,  438,  456. 

Scarabaeus,    438;    number    of    eyes     in     the 

genus,  2. 

anubis,  461. 

claviger,  457. 

enema,  460. 

Hercules,  457,  461. 

Sacred,  459. 

Scarites  Jsevigatus,  437. 

Scatophagus,  85. 

Sciara,  the,  50  ;  superstitions  connected  with, 

51. 

Scolytus,  510. 
Secretion  of  various  fluids  used  as  defences, 

&c.,  apparatus  for,  12. 
Semblis,  423. 

lutarius,  423. 

Mud,  423. 


Sericaria,  the  genus,  214. 
Sericoris  Zinkenana,  268,  270. 
Sesia,  197. 

apiformis,  197. 

Sesiidse,  the,  197. 

Silk,  kind  of,  237 ;  winding  establishment,  241 . 

Silk-worm,  223. 

Silpha,  466. 

obscura,  466. 

quadripunctata,  467. 

thoracica,  467. 


Silphales,  465. 
Sirex,  399. 

Giant,  399. 

gigas,  399,  402. 

juvericus,  402. 

Sitaris  humeralis,  49!*. 


INDEX. 


519 


Skeleton,  exterior  of  insects,  9,  28. 
Sinerinthus,  211. 

ocellatus,  the,  213. 

populi,  213,  214. 

tilise,  211. 

Sphseria,  the,  295. 
Sphex,  the,  397. 
SphingicUe,  the  family,  198. 
Sphinx  convolvuli,  the,  207. 

convolulus,  207. 

Humming-bird,  199. 

ligustri,  the,  206. 

Privet,  206. 

Spider,  Water,  98. 
Spiracles,  15,  18,  28. 
Spring  froth,  115. 
Staphylinidse,  470. 
Staphylinus  hirtus,  472. 

maxillosus,  472. 

olens,  471. 

Stauropus  fagi,  259. 
Stemmata,  2,  4. 
Stomoxys,  71. 

calcitrans,  71. 

Strength  of  insects,  M.  Felix  Plateau  on,  23,25. 
Stylopidae,  435. 
Stylops,  435. 

— melittee,  435. 

Sugar  Acaras,  351. 
Swallow-tail  moth,  145. 
Swarm  of  bees,  353. 
Syndesus  cornutus,  465. 
Syromastes,  92. 
Syrphici,  54,  56. 

Tabanidae,  the,  52. 
Tabanus,  53,  60. 

autumnalia,  53. 

bovinus,  53. 

Tanystomse,  54. 

Tarsus,  7,  30 ;  of  Lepidoptera,  172. 
Tefflus,  genus,  487. 

megerlei,  487. 

Tenebrio,  496 ;  larva  of,  504. 

molitor,  495. 

Tenthredinetae,  313,  399,  402. 
Tentliredo,  402. 

Tennes,  24,  404. 

of  La  Rochelle,  M.  de  Quatiefages  on, 

415. 

atrox,  409. 

bellicosus,  407. 

flavicolis,  413. 

lucifugus,  406,  413. 

mordax,  409. 

Tetralobites,  504. 
Tetrix,  311. 

Tettigonia  fraxini,  110. 
Thecla,  183. 

betulse,  184. 

pruni,  184,  185. 

quercus,  184. 

rubi,  184,  185. 

Therates,  495. 
Thorax,  the,  1,  7,  27. 
Thyreophora,  85. 
Tibia,  7. 

Tiger  Moth,  the,  157. 
Tinea  cerasiella,  282. 

cratcegella,  282. 

lapella,  282. 


Tinea  rusticella,  282. 

tapezella,  279. 

Tineina,  278. 

Tipula  culiciformis,  the,  48. 

oleracea,  49. 

Tipulidae,  38,  47,  55. 
Tomicus,  genus,  510. 
Tongue  of  the  fly,  78. 
Tortrix,  Green,  269. 

roborana,  268,  269. 

sorbiana,  l>68. 

vividana,  269. 

Tracheae,  15,  18,  22;  vesicular,  16. 

Trichides,  443. 

Trichius  fasciatus,  25,  445. 

Trichoptera,  order,  404. 

Tridactylus,  the  genus,  298. 

Trochanter,  7  ;  of  Lepidoptera,  172. 

Trox,  458. 

Truxales,  311. 

Tsetse-fly,  the,  72  ;  Livingstone  on  the,  74. 

Urocerata,  the,  399.    ' 

Valgus  hemipterus,  446. 
Vanessa  antiopa,  190. 

atalanta,  190. 

C-album,  192. 

cardui,  191. 

lo,  188. 

polychloros,  187,  188 ;  chrysalis  of,  166. 

urticee,  150,  187,  188. 

Vermileo,  56. 

de  Geeri,  56. 

Vespa  crabo,  373. 

rufa,  372,  373. 

vulgaris,  the,  372. 

Vespiarise,  313. 
Vitceral  cavity,  18. 
Volucella,  the,  56,  57. 

Wasp,  312,  313,  371;  pupa  of  common,  374; 
nest  of,  exterior,  375 ;  interior  of.  376. 

Bush,  372,  373. 

Cardmaking,  379. 

Common,  372. 

-  Russet,  373. 
Water  scorpions,  98. 
Weevil,  508. 

Bean,  509. 

Clover,  509. 

Pea,  508. 

Rape,  509. 

Turnip,  509. 

Vetch,  509. 

-    Wheat,  509. 

Whirligig  beetle,  480. 
White  Ant,  see  Termes. 
Wings  of  Insects,  9. 
Woolly  Bear  caterpillar,  157. 

Xenos  Peckii,  433. 

Rossii,  434. 

-  vesparum,  435. 
Xylocopa,  367. 
Xylopoda  frabiciana,  268. 

Zeuzera  sesculi,  257. 
Zygzena  filipendulse,  198. 
Zygienidse,  198. 


THE    END. 


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